Effects
of
the
length
and
timing
of
nighttime
naps
on
task
performance
and
physiological
function
Hidemaro
Takeyama
I
;
Shun
Matsumoto
II
;
Kensaburo
Murata
I
;
Takeshi
Ebara
I
;
Tomohide
Kubo
I
;
Norihide
Tachi
I
;
Toru
Itani
I
I
Health
Sciences
of
Life
,
Work
and
Environment
.
Department
of
Environmental
Health
Science
and
Health
Promotion
.
Nagoya
City
University
Graduate
School
of
Medical
Sciences
.
Nagoya
,
Japan
II
The
Institute
for
Science
of
Labor
.
Kawasaki
,
Japan
Correspondence
ABSTRACT
OBJECTIVE
:
To
examine
the
effects
of
the
length
and
timing
of
nighttime
naps
on
performance
and
physiological
functions
,
an
experimental
study
was
carried
out
under
simulated
night
shift
schedules
.
METHODS
:
Six
students
were
recruited
for
this
study
that
was
composed
of
5
experiments
.
Each
experiment
involved
3
consecutive
days
with
one
night
shift
(
22
:
00
-
8
:
00
)
followed
by
daytime
sleep
and
night
sleep
.
The
experiments
had
5
conditions
in
which
the
length
and
timing
of
naps
were
manipulated
:
0
:
00
-
1
:
00
(
E60
)
,
0
:
00
-
2
:
00
(
E120
)
,
4
:
00
-
5
:
00
(
L60
)
,
4
:
00
-
6
:
00
(
L120
)
,
and
no
nap
(
No
-
nap
)
.
During
the
night
shifts
,
participants
underwent
performance
tests
.
A
questionnaire
on
subjective
fatigue
and
a
critical
flicker
fusion
frequency
test
were
administered
after
the
performance
tests
.
Heart
rate
variability
and
rectal
temperature
were
recorded
continuously
during
the
experiments
.
Polysomnography
was
also
recorded
during
the
nap
.
RESULTS
:
Sleep
latency
was
shorter
and
sleep
efficiency
was
higher
in
the
nap
in
L60
and
L120
than
that
in
E60
and
E120
.
Slow
wave
sleep
in
the
naps
in
E120
and
L120
was
longer
than
that
in
E60
and
L60
.
The
mean
reaction
time
in
L60
became
longer
after
the
nap
,
and
faster
in
E60
and
E120
.
Earlier
naps
serve
to
counteract
the
decrement
in
performance
and
physiological
functions
during
night
shifts
.
Performance
was
somewhat
improved
by
taking
a
2
-
hour
nap
later
in
the
shift
,
but
deteriorated
after
a
one
-
hour
nap
.
CONCLUSIONS
:
Naps
in
the
latter
half
of
the
night
shift
were
superior
to
earlier
naps
in
terms
of
sleep
quality
.
However
performance
declined
after
a
1
-
hour
nap
taken
later
in
the
night
shift
due
to
sleep
inertia
.
This
study
suggests
that
appropriate
timing
of
a
short
nap
must
be
carefully
considered
,
such
as
a
60
-
min
nap
during
the
night
shift
.
Keywords
:
Night
work
.
Shift
work
.
Sleep
,
physiology
.
Students
.
Questionnaires
.
RESUMO
OBJETIVO
:
Para
investigar
os
efeitos
da
duração
e
horário
de
cochilos
noturnos
sobre
o
desempenho
e
as
funções
fisiológicas
foi
realizado
um
estudo
experimental
por
meio
do
trabalho
noturno
simulado
.
MÉTODOS
:
Seis
estudantes
foram
recrutados
para
o
estudo
que
consistiu
de
cinco
experimentos
.
Cada
experimento
consistia
de
três
dias
consecutivos
com
um
turno
noturno
(
22
:
00
-
8
:
00h
)
seguido
por
um
período
de
sono
diurno
e
noturno
.
Os
experimentos
compreendiam
cinco
condições
em
que
a
duração
e
o
horário
dos
cochilos
eram
manipulados
:
0
:
00
-
1
:
00
(
E60
)
,
0
:
00
-
2
:
00
(
E120
)
,
4
:
00
-
5
:
00
(
L60
)
,
4
:
00
-
6
:
00
(
L120
)
e
sem
cochilo
(
N
-
nap
)
.
Durante
os
turnos
noturnos
,
os
participantes
foram
submetidos
a
testes
de
desempenho
.
Um
questionário
sobre
cansaço
subjetivo
e
um
teste
de
freqüência
crítica
de
luz
foram
aplicados
depois
dos
testes
de
desempenho
.
A
variabilidade
da
freqüência
cardíaca
e
a
temperatura
retal
foram
registrados
continuamente
durante
os
experimentos
.
Polissonografia
também
foi
realizada
durante
o
cochilo
.
RESULTADOS
:
A
latência
de
sono
foi
menor
e
a
eficiência
do
sono
maior
no
cochilo
em
L60
e
L120
que
em
E60
e
E120
.
O
sono
de
ondas
lentas
nos
cochilos
em
E120
e
L120
foi
mais
longo
que
em
E60
e
L60
.
O
tempo
médio
de
reação
em
L60
ficou
mais
longo
depois
do
cochilo
e
mais
rápido
em
E60
e
E120
.
Os
cochilos
em
horário
mais
cedo
serviram
para
neutralizar
a
queda
no
desempenho
e
funções
fisiológicas
durante
o
turno
noturno
.
Houve
uma
ligeira
melhora
do
desempenho
ao
se
tirar
um
cochilo
de
duas
horas
num
horário
mais
tarde
durante
o
turno
,
mas
houve
piora
depois
de
um
cochilo
de
uma
hora
.
CONCLUSÕES
:
Os
cochilos
na
última
metade
do
turno
noturno
foram
melhores
em
termos
de
qualidade
de
sono
do
que
os
cochilos
em
um
horário
mais
cedo
.
O
desempenho
,
no
entanto
,
piorou
depois
de
um
cochilo
de
uma
hora
em
um
horário
mais
tarde
durante
o
turno
por
causa
da
inércia
do
sono
.
O
estudo
indica
que
o
horário
adequado
de
um
cochilo
curto
deve
ser
cuidadosamente
considerado
,
tal
como
um
cochilo
de
60
minutos
durante
o
turno
noturno
.
Descritores
:
Trabalho
noturno
.
Trabalho
em
turnos
.
Sono
,
fisiologia
.
Estudantes
.
Questionários
.
INTRODUCTION
Shift
workers
tend
to
suffer
from
a
chronic
lack
of
sleep
or
cumulative
fatigue
from
being
compelled
to
follow
a
wake
-
sleep
cycle
not
conforming
to
their
innate
biological
rhythms
.
6
Sleepiness
and
fatigue
among
shift
workers
are
known
as
potential
risks
for
occupational
safety
and
health
in
many
industries
.
1
,
4
Taking
a
nap
during
the
night
shift
has
been
suggested
as
an
effective
way
to
prevent
fatigue
or
other
complaints
related
to
shiftwork
.
8
On
the
other
hand
,
nighttime
naps
have
a
transient
negative
effect
on
performance
immediately
after
awakening
.
This
effect
is
known
as
"
sleep
inertia
"
.
Previous
studies
have
reported
that
the
severity
of
sleep
inertia
depends
on
the
timing
of
the
nap
taken
and
the
sleep
stage
just
before
awakening
.
7
,
9
Therefore
,
it
is
necessary
to
consider
the
effect
of
nap
length
and
timing
on
performance
and
alertness
.
It
is
suggested
that
an
approximately
two
-
hour
nap
is
an
appropriate
length
,
because
the
first
cycle
of
nocturnal
sleep
in
adults
usually
lasts
approximately
two
hours
including
the
duration
of
both
Slow
Wave
Sleep
and
REM
sleep
.
However
,
some
studies
indicate
a
similar
effect
on
alertness
after
less
than
a
2
-
hour
nap
compared
with
a
2
-
hour
nap
.
11
,
14
Regarding
the
timing
of
the
nap
,
Gillberg
5
indicated
that
performance
in
the
early
morning
after
a
1
-
hour
nap
in
the
later
half
of
the
night
shift
was
superior
to
that
during
the
first
half
of
the
night
shift
.
Sallinen
et
al
15
reported
that
a
nap
shorter
than
1
-
hour
starting
at
1
:
00
or
3
:
50
improved
alertness
in
the
early
morning
.
However
,
there
are
few
studies
that
focus
on
the
timing
and
length
of
nighttime
naps
.
In
the
present
study
,
the
effects
of
the
length
and
timing
of
nighttime
naps
on
changes
in
task
performance
and
physiological
functions
were
investigated
by
an
experimental
study
carried
out
under
simulated
night
shift
schedules
.
METHODS
Participants
and
design
Six
students
voluntarily
participated
in
this
study
.
All
participants
were
healthy
males
,
aged
19
-
22
yrs
,
non
-
smokers
and
not
taking
medications
continuously
.
Participants
were
given
a
detailed
description
of
the
study
,
and
their
informed
consent
was
obtained
in
writing
.
The
study
was
composed
of
5
experiments
,
each
lasting
3
consecutive
days
with
one
night
shift
(
22
:
00
-
8
:
00
)
,
followed
by
day
sleep
(
11
:
30
-
17
:
00
)
and
night
sleep
(
0
:
00
-
7
:
00
)
.
The
experiments
had
5
different
conditions
in
which
the
length
and
timing
of
naps
were
manipulated
:
0
:
00
-
1
:
00
(
E60
)
,
0
:
00
-
2
:
00
(
E120
)
,
4
:
00
-
5
:
00
(
L60
)
,
4
:
00
-
6
:
00
(
L120
)
and
no
nap
(
No
-
nap
)
.
All
participants
underwent
the
five
experiments
in
a
counterbalanced
order
.
In
order
to
minimize
carry
-
over
effects
,
there
were
at
least
five
days
between
the
experiments
.
The
participants
were
instructed
to
do
their
usual
daily
activities
and
sleep
between
the
experiments
.
Their
sleep
and
awake
between
the
experiments
were
measured
by
an
actigraph
.
None
of
the
participants
appeared
chronic
or
acute
sleep
deprivation
before
the
experiment
.
On
the
day
before
the
beginning
of
the
first
series
of
experiments
the
participants
visited
the
laboratory
to
practice
the
performance
tests
and
also
slept
overnight
in
the
laboratory
for
adaptation
to
experimental
environment
.
During
the
night
shifts
,
the
participants
were
requested
to
do
a
set
of
task
and
performance
tests
every
hour
except
when
they
were
taking
a
nap
.
The
task
consisted
of
typing
documents
into
a
computer
for
30
minutes
.
Performance
tests
were
composed
of
a
choice
reaction
time
test
(
CRT
)
,
a
logical
reasoning
test
(
LRT
)
,
a
vigilance
test
(
VT
)
,
and
a
critical
flicker
fusion
frequency
test
(
CFF
)
.
After
the
performance
tests
,
the
participants
filled
out
a
questionnaire
on
subjective
fatigue
.
It
took
about
20
minutes
to
finish
the
4
performance
tests
and
the
questionnaire
.
Therefore
,
the
participants
were
able
to
take
a
break
of
at
least
5
minutes
before
moving
to
the
next
set
.
The
participants
were
served
two
biscuits
and
60
ml
of
mineral
water
every
break
time
during
the
night
shifts
.
In
this
study
,
the
total
number
of
task
and
performance
tests
differed
among
nap
conditions
.
The
number
of
the
task
and
the
performance
tests
during
night
shift
was
10
for
N
-
nap
,
8
for
E60
and
L60
,
and
7
for
E120
and
L120
.
Electroencephalography
(
EEG
)
,
electrooculography
(
EOG
)
,
and
electromyography
(
EMG
)
were
recorded
during
adaptation
to
night
sleep
,
nighttime
naps
,
daytime
sleep
and
night
sleep
.
During
all
experiments
,
heart
rate
variability
was
continuously
recorded
except
while
taking
a
bath
.
Measurements
A
computerized
test
battery
,
including
a
CRT
,
a
VT
,
and
a
LRT
,
was
used
.
In
the
CRT
,
the
participants
were
asked
to
press
keys
as
quickly
as
possible
with
a
finger
of
the
dominant
hand
when
a
figure
appeared
randomly
in
the
center
of
the
displays
.
The
test
procedure
for
VT
was
similar
to
CRT
,
but
the
intervals
for
presenting
the
numbers
on
the
display
were
arranged
randomly
between
1
and
10
sec
.
The
LRT
was
performed
as
described
by
Baddeley
.
2
"
AB
"
,
or
"
BA
"
,
were
randomly
shown
,
followed
below
by
"
A
is
ahead
of
B
,
"
"
A
is
not
preceded
by
B
,
"
"
B
follows
A
,
"
and
so
on
.
Participants
were
requested
to
answer
true
or
false
by
pressing
the
appropriate
key
as
quickly
as
possible
.
Critical
flicker
fusion
frequencies
were
examined
by
recognizing
a
blinking
light
using
the
Roken
Digital
Flicker
(
model
RDF
-
1
;
Shibata
Co
.
,
Ltd
.
,
Tokyo
,
Japan
)
.
The
participants
gazed
at
a
red
light
placed
in
the
middle
of
a
slightly
illuminated
screen
.
The
red
light
was
presented
automatically
with
flicker
frequencies
ranging
from
60
Hz
to
25
Hz
in
descending
order
.
Participants
were
requested
to
press
a
button
when
they
perceived
flickering
.
The
measurements
were
performed
five
times
.
EEG
,
EOG
,
and
EMG
were
recorded
with
Poltmate
AP1124
(
TEAC
Instruments
Co
.
,
Ltd
,
Japan
)
.
Sleep
stages
were
analyzed
according
to
Rechtschffen
and
Kales
.
13
The
EEG
and
EOG
were
recorded
from
the
C4
-
A1
,
C3
-
A2
,
E1
-
A1
,
and
E2
-
A1
using
silver
-
silver
chloride
electrodes
.
The
EMG
was
recorded
with
disposable
electrodes
.
The
questionnaire
consisted
of
25
questions
with
regard
to
subjective
fatigue
feeling
established
by
the
Research
Group
for
Occupational
Fatigue
of
Japan
Society
for
Occupational
Health
.
15
Heart
rate
variability
was
recorded
with
a
Holter
type
ECG
recorder
(
Active
Tracer
AC301
,
GMS
Inc
.
,
Tokyo
,
Japan
)
during
all
experiments
.
The
data
were
entered
in
a
computer
after
measurement
.
Then
the
frequency
analysis
of
R
-
R
intervals
by
the
Memcalc
system
(
Suwa
Trust
Co
.
,
Ltd
.
,
Japan
)
,
and
high
frequency
power
(
HF
;
0
.
15
-
0
.
4
Hz
)
and
low
frequency
power
(
LF
;
0
.
04
-
0
.
15
Hz
)
were
calculated
.
The
component
of
high
frequency
power
and
LF
/
HF
were
taken
as
the
index
of
parasympathetic
and
sympathetic
nerve
activity
,
respectively
.
10
Mean
values
of
power
components
were
calculated
every
hour
during
the
night
shift
.
The
results
were
the
values
in
relation
to
the
mean
values
during
the
entire
night
shift
.
Data
analysis
Each
item
on
the
questionnaire
was
scored
on
a
1
to
5
points
scale
.
The
average
rates
of
complaints
regarding
5
factors
(
feeling
of
drowsiness
,
instability
,
uneasiness
,
local
pain
or
dullness
,
and
eyestrain
)
were
calculated
.
The
sleep
physiology
data
were
analyzed
by
factorial
two
-
way
ANOVA
by
"
timing
of
naps
"
and
"
length
of
naps
"
as
factors
.
Fatigue
,
CFF
and
performance
data
from
all
nap
conditions
(
22
:
30
,
23
:
30
,
2
:
30
,
3
:
30
,
6
:
30
,
7
:
30
)
were
analyzed
by
two
-
way
,
repeated
measures
ANOVA
with
"
time
"
and
"
nap
condition
"
as
factors
.
Our
main
interest
was
in
the
interaction
effect
.
However
,
no
significant
interactions
were
observed
.
Therefore
,
the
results
for
fatigue
,
CFF
and
performance
tests
during
the
night
shift
were
indicated
as
relative
changes
in
relation
to
the
values
just
before
beginning
of
night
shift
(
21
:
30
)
.
Comparisons
between
the
5
nap
conditions
at
the
same
measurement
points
were
performed
using
one
-
way
ANOVA
.
Post
-
hoc
analysis
was
done
using
Scheffe
'
s
method
.
Statistical
analyses
were
performed
using
SPSS
version
10
.
0
.
RESULTS
Sleep
latency
for
the
nap
in
L60
and
L120
was
significantly
shorter
than
for
the
nap
in
E60
and
E120
(
Table
)
.
Total
sleep
time
was
significantly
longer
and
sleep
efficiency
was
also
higher
in
the
nap
in
L60
and
L120
than
in
the
nap
in
E60
and
E120
.
On
the
other
hand
,
Slow
Wave
Sleep
and
its
percent
of
total
sleep
in
the
nap
in
E120
and
L120
was
significantly
longer
than
in
the
nap
in
E60
and
L60
.
There
were
no
significant
interactions
between
time
and
length
of
naps
on
any
of
the
sleep
parameters
.
There
was
no
significant
difference
in
the
HF
component
of
heart
rate
variability
(
an
index
of
parasympathetic
nerve
activity
)
between
the
naps
taken
in
the
second
half
of
the
night
shift
and
those
in
the
first
half
of
the
night
shift
.
Mean
reaction
times
of
VT
and
RT
in
the
N
-
nap
condition
deteriorated
as
the
night
work
progressed
.
Although
the
mean
reaction
times
in
VT
and
RT
tended
to
be
faster
after
the
nap
in
E60
and
E120
compared
to
N
-
nap
condition
,
there
was
no
significant
deference
(
Figure
1
and
2
)
.
However
,
significant
delay
in
mean
reaction
time
at
8
:
00
was
observed
in
the
E120
condition
.
There
were
no
positive
effects
of
L60
and
L120
on
mean
reaction
times
after
the
naps
.
On
the
contrary
,
in
L60
significant
delays
in
mean
reaction
time
were
observed
after
nap
compared
to
N
-
nap
.
The
CFF
values
tended
to
improve
after
the
nap
in
E60
and
E120
compared
with
No
-
nap
(
Figure
3
)
.
The
CFF
values
after
the
nap
in
L60
had
an
apparent
tendency
to
deteriorate
but
the
differences
were
not
significant
.
Drowsiness
score
increased
as
night
work
progressed
in
the
No
-
nap
condition
(
Figure
4
)
.
In
the
four
experimental
conditions
,
drowsiness
tended
appeared
to
be
suppressed
after
the
nap
compared
with
the
No
-
nap
but
there
were
no
significant
differences
.
The
scores
for
local
pain
or
dullness
in
L60
and
L120
tended
to
decrease
after
the
nap
.
Feelings
of
instability
,
uneasiness
,
and
eyestrain
showed
fewer
differences
between
nap
conditions
.
DISCUSSION
The
sleep
efficiency
of
120
-
and
60
-
min
naps
in
the
latter
half
of
the
night
shift
was
higher
than
in
the
earlier
two
naps
,
and
slow
wave
sleep
in
the
two
120
-
min
naps
was
longer
than
in
the
two
60
-
min
naps
.
Therefore
,
a
120
-
min
nap
in
the
latter
half
of
the
night
shift
was
superior
to
other
nap
conditions
in
terms
of
sleep
quality
.
These
findings
were
consistent
with
previous
studies
indicating
the
superiority
of
naps
taken
near
the
circadian
nadir
.
5
,
14
The
data
on
higher
parasympathetic
nerve
activity
during
the
120
-
min
and
60
-
min
naps
in
the
latter
half
of
the
night
shift
compared
with
the
120
-
min
and
60
-
min
naps
in
the
former
half
is
consistent
with
the
sleep
quality
data
.
Task
performance
after
120
-
min
and
60
min
naps
in
the
first
half
of
the
night
shift
tended
to
be
improved
for
a
while
after
awakening
.
Task
performances
following
the
later
two
naps
showed
no
clear
improvements
after
awakening
regardless
of
the
superior
sleep
quality
achieved
.
On
the
contrary
,
performance
deteriorated
after
awakening
for
the
later
60
-
min
nap
.
Lubin
et
al
7
reported
that
performance
decreased
immediately
after
taking
a
nap
and
the
effect
of
this
"
sleep
inertia
"
continued
for
5
-
15
minutes
after
waking
.
Previous
studies
have
indicated
that
both
duration
and
intensity
vary
.
Dinges
et
al
3
reported
that
deeper
sleep
just
before
awakening
leads
to
more
severe
sleep
inertia
.
Naitoh
9
suggested
that
sleep
inertia
might
be
more
severe
around
the
circadian
nadir
than
at
other
times
of
the
day
.
In
the
present
study
the
relations
between
degrees
of
sleep
inertia
and
sleep
stage
upon
awakening
were
not
consistent
between
participants
.
In
addition
,
the
slower
reaction
time
continued
until
the
end
of
the
night
shift
.
Sallinen
et
al
14
examined
the
effects
of
50
-
min
and
30
-
min
naps
on
three
-
shift
workers
with
timing
similar
to
that
in
our
study
.
However
,
their
results
indicated
no
serious
sleep
inertia
and
no
difference
between
earlier
and
later
naps
.
Our
findings
were
not
consistent
with
previous
studies
regarding
the
severity
and
duration
of
sleep
inertia
.
We
have
identified
no
convincing
explanations
for
this
difference
so
far
.
It
might
be
due
to
slight
differences
in
nap
length
and
timing
or
different
experimental
conditions
.
In
VT
,
the
reaction
times
between
the
No
-
nap
condition
and
L120
were
already
different
at
the
beginning
of
the
night
shift
.
In
this
study
,
the
participants
were
informed
which
nap
condition
they
had
to
perform
at
beginning
the
experiments
.
It
was
presumed
that
some
psychological
factors
partly
caused
the
differences
between
the
No
-
nap
condition
and
L120
.
Subjective
feelings
of
sleepiness
in
this
study
were
not
clearly
reduced
by
the
naps
.
Saito
&
Sasaki
13
reported
that
subjective
fatigue
was
clearly
decreased
by
both
a
1
-
and
2
-
hour
nap
.
Our
results
were
not
consistent
with
their
study
.
The
score
for
local
pain
or
dullness
in
L60
and
L120
tended
to
decrease
after
a
nap
regardless
of
significant
sleep
inertia
.
Further
studies
with
larger
sample
sizes
are
necessary
to
resolve
such
discrepancies
.
In
summary
,
naps
in
the
second
half
of
the
night
shift
were
superior
to
earlier
naps
in
terms
of
sleep
quality
.
However
performance
declined
after
a
1
-
hour
nap
taken
later
in
the
night
shift
due
to
sleep
inertia
.
It
was
suggested
from
this
study
a
short
(
60
minute
)
nap
must
be
carefully
timed
to
gain
optimum
benefit
.
The
number
of
participants
in
this
study
was
low
(
n
=
6
)
,
producing
low
statistical
power
.
Therefore
,
further
investigations
using
larger
sample
sizes
are
necessary
.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The
authors
express
their
appreciation
to
the
Tokyo
Electric
Power
Company
for
leasing
the
electroencephalograph
and
performance
test
battery
for
this
study
.
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31
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Lubin
A
,
Hord
D
,
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M
,
Johnson
LC
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Effects
of
exercise
,
bedrest
and
napping
on
performance
decrement
during
40
hours
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1987
;
13
:
334
-
9
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.
Matsumoto
K
.
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of
nighttime
naps
on
body
temperature
changes
sleep
patterns
,
and
self
-
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of
sleep
.
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(
Tokyo
)
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;
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173
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84
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Naitoh
P
,
Angus
RG
.
Napping
and
human
functioning
during
prolonged
work
.
In
:
Dinges
DF
,
Broughton
RJ
,
editors
.
Sleep
and
alertness
:
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,
behavioral
and
medical
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of
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:
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;
1989
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p
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221
-
46
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10
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Ohtomo
N
,
Tanaka
Y
.
New
method
of
time
series
analysis
and
'
MemCalc
'
.
In
:
Saito
K
,
editor
.
A
recent
advance
in
time
-
series
analysis
by
maximum
entropy
method
.
Hokkaido
:
Hokkaido
University
Press
;
1994
.
p
.
11
-
29
.
11
.
Purnell
MT
,
Feyer
AM
,
Herbison
P
.
The
impact
of
a
nap
opportunity
during
the
night
shift
on
the
performance
and
alertness
of
12
-
h
shift
workers
.
J
Sleep
Res
2002
;
11
:
219
-
27
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[
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]
12
.
Rechtschaffen
A
,
Kales
A
.
A
manual
of
standardization
terminology
,
techniques
and
scoring
systems
for
sleep
stages
of
human
subjects
.
Washington
(
DC
)
:
US
Government
Printing
Office
;
1968
.
13
.
Saito
Y
,
Sasaki
T
.
The
effect
of
length
of
a
nocturnal
nap
on
fatigue
feeling
during
subsequent
early
morning
hours
.
J
Sci
Labour
1996
;
72
:
15
-
23
.
14
.
Sallinen
M
,
Harma
M
,
Akerstedt
T
,
Rosa
R
,
Liiqvist
O
.
Promoting
alertness
with
a
short
nap
during
a
night
shift
.
J
Sleep
Res
1998
;
7
:
240
-
7
.
[
Medline
]
15
.
Tachi
N
,
Itani
T
,
Sakai
K
,
Kondo
Y
,
Seo
A
,
Sasaki
T
et
al
.
Validity
of
a
newly
developed
questionnaire
for
evaluating
work
-
related
fatigue
feeling
.
27
th
International
Congress
on
Occupational
Health
.
Correspondence
to
Hidemaro
Takeyama
Health
Sciences
of
Life
,
Work
and
Environment
Nagoya
City
University
Graduate
School
of
Medical
Sciences
Kawasumi
1
,
Mizuho
-
ku
,
Nagoya
467
-
8601
,
Japan
E
-
mail
:
hidemaro
@
med
.
nagoya
-
cu
.
ac
.
jp
Presented
at
the
XVI
International
Symposium
on
Night
and
Shiftwork
,
November
2003
.
Santos
,
SP
,
Brazil
.
This
work
was
supported
in
part
by
a
Grant
-
in
-
Aid
for
Scientific
Research
(
B
)
14370142
from
the
Ministry
of
Education
,
Culture
,
Sports
,
Science
and
Technology
,
Japan
.
Received
on
15
/
3
/
2004
.
Approved
on
27
/
9
/
2004
©
2006
Faculdade
de
Saúde
Pública
da
Universidade
de
São
Paulo
Avenida
Dr
.
Arnaldo
,
715
01246
-
904
São
Paulo
SP
Brazil
Tel
.
/
Fax
:
+
55
11
3068
-
0539
Evaluation
of
the
factors
interfering
with
drug
treatment
compliance
among
Brazilian
patients
with
schizophrenia
Avaliação
dos
fatores
de
aderência
ao
tratamento
medicamentoso
entre
pacientes
brasileiros
com
esquizofrenia
Moacyr
Alexandro
Rosa
;
Marco
Antônio
Marcolin
;
Hélio
Elkis
Psychiatry
Unit
,
Universidade
de
São
Paulo
(
USP
)
,
São
Paulo
(
SP
)
,
Brazil
Correspondence
ABSTRACT
BACKGROUND
:
Treatment
noncompliance
among
schizophrenic
patients
is
as
high
as
50
%
.
In
order
to
rate
compliance
and
assess
the
most
significant
differences
between
compliant
and
noncompliant
patients
,
a
Brazilian
population
of
schizophrenic
outpatients
was
followed
for
one
year
.
METHODS
:
Fifty
outpatients
were
selected
.
Clinical
interview
,
the
Brief
Psychiatric
Rating
Scale
-
Anchored
version
(
BPRS
-
A
)
and
an
expanded
version
of
the
Rating
of
Medical
Influences
(
ROMI
)
scale
(
used
to
rate
patient
attitudes
toward
compliance
)
were
applied
at
baseline
.
The
BPRS
-
A
was
used
in
the
follow
-
up
visits
(
approximately
once
a
month
)
.
Missing
two
consecutive
appointments
without
explanation
or
taking
less
than
75
%
of
the
medication
(
by
written
family
report
)
was
considered
noncompliance
.
RESULTS
:
Noncompliance
was
48
%
over
one
year
.
Patients
in
the
noncompliant
group
presented
initial
worsening
of
psychotic
symptoms
(
p
<
0
.
05
)
and
had
been
treated
for
a
shorter
length
of
time
(
p
=
0
.
007
)
.
The
ROMI
scale
showed
that
"
perceived
day
-
to
-
day
benefit
"
was
most
strongly
correlated
with
compliance
,
and
feeling
"
distressed
by
side
effects
"
was
most
strongly
correlated
with
noncompliance
.
DISCUSSON
:
This
study
evaluates
the
frequency
of
noncompliance
and
the
main
reasons
for
complying
in
a
population
of
schizophrenic
outpatients
.
CONCLUSIONS
:
Severity
of
psychopathology
was
found
to
correlate
with
noncompliance
(
although
not
necessarily
as
its
cause
)
,
as
well
as
with
duration
of
treatment
.
Noncompliance
rates
are
high
and
must
be
taken
into
account
in
any
treatment
program
.
Keywords
:
Schizophrenia
/
therapy
;
Patient
compliance
;
Antipsychotic
agents
/
therapeutic
use
;
Patient
acceptance
of
health
care
;
Treatment
refusal
RESUMO
INTRODUÇÃO
:
A
não
aderência
ao
tratamento
em
pacientes
com
esquizofrenia
chega
a
50
%
.
Com
a
finalidade
de
avaliar
a
taxa
de
aderência
e
as
principais
diferenças
entre
pacientes
aderentes
e
não
aderentes
,
uma
população
de
pacientes
esquizofrênicos
em
tratamento
ambulatorial
foi
acompanhada
por
um
ano
.
MÉTODOS
:
Cinqüenta
pacientes
foram
selecionados
.
Foi
realizada
uma
entrevista
clínica
e
aplicadas
as
escalas
BPRS
-
A
(
Escala
Breve
de
Avaliação
Psiquiátrica
-
Versão
Ancorada
)
e
uma
versão
expandida
da
ROMI
(
Escala
de
Influências
Medicamentosas
)
na
avaliação
basal
.
A
BPRS
-
A
foi
utilizada
nas
visitas
seguintes
(
cerca
de
uma
vez
por
mês
)
.
A
falta
consecutiva
a
duas
consultas
sem
explicação
ou
a
ingestão
de
menos
de
75
%
(
segundo
relato
familiar
escrito
)
da
medicação
foram
consideradas
não
aderência
ao
tratamento
.
RESULTADOS
:
A
taxa
de
não
aderência
encontrada
foi
de
48
%
em
um
ano
.
O
grupo
não
aderente
teve
uma
piora
na
sintomatologia
psicótica
inicial
(
p
<
0
,
05
)
e
havia
estado
em
tratamento
por
um
tempo
mais
curto
(
p
=
0
,
007
)
.
A
escala
ROMI
mostrou
que
a
"
percepção
de
benefício
diário
"
foi
o
fator
mais
associado
à
aderência
e
o
sentimento
de
"
desconforto
por
efeitos
colaterais
"
estava
mais
associado
à
não
aderência
.
DISCUSSÃO
:
Este
estudo
avalia
a
freqüência
de
não
aderência
e
as
principais
razões
para
aderir
ao
tratamento
numa
população
de
pacientes
esquizofrênicos
.
CONCLUSÕES
:
A
gravidade
da
sintomatologia
pode
ser
um
fator
relacionado
com
a
aderência
,
mas
não
necessariamente
sua
causa
,
bem
como
o
tempo
de
duração
do
tratamento
.
As
taxas
de
não
aderência
são
altas
e
devem
ser
consideradas
em
qualquer
programa
de
tratamento
.
Descritores
:
Esquizofrenia
/
terapia
;
Cooperação
do
paciente
;
Antipsicóticos
/
uso
terapêutico
;
Aceitação
do
paciente
de
cuidados
de
saúde
;
Recusa
do
paciente
ao
tratamento
Introduction
Treatment
noncompliance
is
one
of
the
main
obstacles
to
controlling
schizophrenia
.
1
Noncompliance
significantly
increases
the
rate
of
relapse
(
a
worsening
of
symptoms
,
not
necessarily
leading
to
hospitalization
)
,
2
as
well
as
the
rate
of
rehospitalization
3
and
the
length
of
readmissions
.
4
There
is
also
a
strong
correlation
between
compliance
and
risk
of
future
hospitalization
.
3
The
need
for
maintenance
therapies
with
antipsychotics
in
schizophrenia
is
currently
acknowledged
unanimously
.
Although
antipsychotics
are
not
perfect
,
most
can
control
the
disorder
,
leading
to
relief
from
the
so
-
called
positive
symptoms
.
Socioeconomic
factors
are
also
important
.
In
the
USA
,
the
annual
cost
of
hospital
admissions
due
to
schizophrenia
relapse
is
approximately
US
$
2
.
3
billion
.
The
accumulated
cost
for
readmission
within
two
years
after
discharge
is
approximately
US
$
2
billion
.
5
Noncompliance
to
antipsychotic
therapy
accounts
for
approximately
37
%
of
these
costs
.
5
It
has
been
reported
that
one
-
year
rates
of
noncompliance
are
41
%
(
range
,
10
to
76
%
)
when
oral
antipsychotics
are
used
and
25
%
(
range
,
14
to
36
%
)
when
deposit
antipsychotics
are
used
.
6
For
the
two
methods
of
administration
,
a
mean
rate
of
55
%
(
range
,
24
to
88
%
)
has
been
reported
.
7
Determining
the
magnitude
of
each
of
the
factors
that
influence
compliance
is
not
an
easy
task
.
There
are
at
least
three
scales
currently
available
to
carry
out
this
task
.
These
scales
assess
patient
attitude
toward
treatment
compliance
.
They
are
the
Van
Putten
&
May
Scale
8
(
for
measuring
neuroleptic
dysphoria
)
,
the
Drug
Attitude
Inventory
9
(
a
widely
used
scale
that
has
even
been
translated
into
several
languages
)
10
-
14
and
the
Rating
of
Medication
Influences
(
ROMI
)
scale
15
(
also
widely
used
)
.
16
-
17
The
last
is
the
most
comprehensive
,
especially
for
rating
compliance
in
outpatient
clinics
.
A
Portuguese
translation
of
the
ROMI
scale
is
currently
available
.
18
In
Brazil
,
there
have
been
few
studies
of
treatment
compliance
in
schizophrenia
.
The
present
study
was
carried
out
in
order
to
rate
compliance
among
schizophrenic
outpatients
at
two
public
health
clinics
in
the
city
of
São
Paulo
over
a
one
-
year
period
.
Methods
1
.
Subjects
Fifty
outpatients
from
two
public
health
clinics
in
the
city
of
São
Paulo
(
Hospital
das
Clínicas
,
n
=
23
,
and
Santa
Casa
de
Misericórdia
de
São
Paulo
,
n
=
27
)
,
diagnosed
with
schizophrenia
according
to
the
DSM
-
IV
,
19
were
randomly
selected
to
be
monitored
regarding
treatment
compliance
for
a
period
of
one
year
.
Patients
were
selected
by
inviting
the
first
patient
to
be
treated
on
each
Tuesday
from
January
to
June
of
1996
.
The
Hospital
das
Clínicas
(
HC
)
has
a
specific
day
(
Tuesdays
)
for
treating
patients
diagnosed
with
schizophrenia
,
whereas
the
Santa
Casa
(
SC
)
does
not
.
Tuesdays
were
chosen
because
that
was
the
day
that
the
assessor
could
be
present
at
both
clinics
.
This
was
not
considered
a
source
of
error
.
Patients
could
be
either
starting
treatment
or
returning
for
a
regularly
scheduled
appointment
.
Patients
who
were
using
clozapine
were
excluded
due
to
their
unique
profile
.
First
of
all
,
they
tend
to
be
more
refractory
patients
.
In
addition
,
since
they
require
weekly
blood
tests
over
a
period
of
18
weeks
,
they
present
a
different
pattern
of
compliance
.
After
a
full
explanation
of
the
study
design
,
patients
were
invited
to
participate
and
written
informed
consent
was
obtained
.
Since
the
study
was
relatively
simple
and
interfered
very
little
with
the
follow
-
up
treatment
,
all
invited
patients
agreed
to
participate
.
2
.
Instruments
Psychopathology
was
quantified
at
baseline
using
the
Brief
Psychiatric
Rating
Scale
-
Anchored
version
(
BPRS
-
A
)
.
20
A
Brazilian
(
Portuguese
)
translation
of
this
scale
is
now
available
.
21
It
is
important
to
mention
that
this
version
,
in
order
to
avoid
misidentification
of
the
psychopathology
,
adopts
a
rating
scale
ranging
from
0
to
6
points
,
which
is
different
from
the
traditional
1
to
7
-
point
scale
.
22
Therefore
,
the
degrees
of
psychopathological
severity
tend
to
be
lower
.
The
main
reasons
for
compliance
and
noncompliance
were
evaluated
using
the
ROMI
(
we
used
a
slightly
expanded
version
of
the
scale
,
which
was
provided
by
the
author
himself
,
Peter
Weiden
,
but
that
essentially
contains
the
same
structure
as
the
original
scale
)
.
The
existing
version
of
the
scale
in
Portuguese
18
is
a
simple
translation
,
which
has
not
been
validated
but
helped
us
interpret
the
version
we
used
.
The
ROMI
consists
of
two
parts
.
The
first
part
is
semi
-
structured
,
comprising
questions
regarding
lifestyle
status
(
e
.
g
.
supervised
or
unsupervised
,
alone
or
with
family
,
homeless
or
not
)
,
locale
of
treatment
,
medication
regimen
prescribed
(
specific
antipsychotic
,
medication
other
than
antipsychotics
,
oral
or
intramuscular
administration
,
dosage
,
frequency
,
duration
of
treatment
)
,
overall
patient
attitude
toward
treatment
and
medication
(
positive
or
negative
,
voluntary
or
forced
compliance
)
and
overall
attitude
of
the
family
,
as
well
as
of
the
caregiver
,
toward
treatment
and
medication
.
The
second
part
of
the
scale
is
divided
into
two
sections
:
reasons
for
compliance
and
reasons
for
noncompliance
.
In
each
section
,
there
is
an
initial
open
question
(
"
What
is
your
primary
motivation
for
taking
the
medication
?
"
and
"
What
is
your
primary
motivation
for
not
taking
the
medication
?
"
)
.
Subsequently
,
the
sections
present
"
closed
questions
"
regarding
the
main
reasons
for
wanting
or
not
wanting
to
take
the
medication
.
In
this
part
of
the
scale
,
the
patient
is
asked
to
indicate
the
degree
of
influence
of
each
item
of
the
scale
(
reasons
for
compliance
and
reasons
for
noncompliance
)
.
The
graduated
responses
to
each
are
"
no
influence
"
,
"
mild
influence
"
and
"
strong
influence
"
(
1
,
2
and
3
,
respectively
,
or
9
when
it
is
impossible
to
evaluate
the
degree
of
influence
)
.
15
The
assessor
was
one
of
the
authors
and
was
blinded
as
to
the
compliance
status
of
the
patients
.
Demographic
data
were
also
collected
,
and
a
clinical
interview
,
concerning
the
total
length
of
time
in
psychiatric
treatment
,
duration
of
treatment
at
the
current
institution
,
number
of
previous
hospitalizations
,
the
schizophrenia
subtype
(
according
to
the
DSM
-
IV
)
,
the
daily
dose
of
antipsychotics
in
chlorpromazine
equivalents
23
-
24
and
the
method
of
administration
,
was
conducted
at
baseline
.
3
.
Follow
-
up
assessment
In
the
following
interviews
(
in
general
,
one
per
month
,
according
to
the
appointments
scheduled
for
each
patient
by
the
attending
psychiatrist
)
,
the
BPRS
-
A
was
used
in
order
to
assess
the
symptoms
of
the
disorder
.
Compliance
was
assessed
through
the
use
of
a
report
written
by
a
family
member
(
who
was
instructed
to
mark
with
an
X
the
pills
that
had
not
been
taken
since
the
previous
appointment
)
.
For
each
patient
,
a
family
member
was
designated
as
responsible
for
this
task
.
When
this
member
(
always
the
same
one
)
had
to
miss
the
appointments
,
the
signed
report
was
brought
by
the
patient
.
Noncompliance
was
defined
as
taking
less
than
75
%
of
the
prescribed
dose
within
the
preceding
30
days
(
adapted
from
Buchanan
,
1992
25
)
.
If
the
patient
missed
two
consecutive
appointments
without
explanation
,
the
family
was
contacted
in
order
to
inquire
about
the
degree
of
compliance
.
In
order
to
avoid
deviations
,
patients
continued
to
be
seen
by
their
own
psychiatrists
,
without
assessor
intervention
in
the
treatment
regimen
.
Patients
were
monitored
for
a
period
of
one
year
unless
they
were
noncompliant
,
in
which
case
the
follow
-
up
assessment
was
discontinued
.
After
one
year
,
the
two
groups
(
compliant
and
noncompliant
patients
)
were
compared
.
4
.
Statistical
analysis
The
general
patient
profile
was
analyzed
using
the
t
-
test
,
the
chi
-
square
test
or
Fisher
'
s
exact
test
.
The
means
of
each
ROMI
item
were
analyzed
using
the
Student
'
s
t
-
test
.
Since
the
follow
-
up
assessment
was
discontinued
in
noncompliant
patients
,
the
last
observation
carried
forward
(
LOCF
)
26
method
was
used
in
order
to
analyze
their
BPRS
-
A
scores
.
Mean
BPRS
-
A
values
(
from
the
baseline
to
the
end
of
the
follow
-
up
assessment
)
for
each
group
were
compared
using
analysis
of
variance
for
repeated
measurements
.
Results
1
.
Patient
Sample
The
sample
comprised
20
men
(
40
%
)
and
30
women
(
60
%
)
.
The
mean
age
was
36
±
6
.
82
years
(
range
,
18
to
45
years
)
.
Forty
(
80
%
)
were
Caucasian
,
5
(
10
%
)
were
Black
,
and
5
(
10
%
)
were
Asian
.
Thirty
-
nine
(
78
%
)
were
single
,
10
(
20
%
)
were
married
and
1
(
2
%
)
was
divorced
.
The
mean
length
of
psychiatric
treatment
was
6
.
94
±
6
.
32
years
(
range
,
0
to
22
years
)
.
The
length
of
treatment
at
the
current
institution
was
30
.
54
months
(
SD
:
33
.
42
,
variation
1
-
175
)
.
The
mean
number
of
previous
hospitalizations
was
1
.
56
±
1
.
73
(
range
,
0
to
5
)
.
The
schizophrenia
subtype
was
found
to
be
paranoid
in
39
patients
(
78
%
)
,
disorganized
in
7
(
14
%
)
and
residual
in
4
(
8
%
)
.
The
mean
dose
of
antipsychotic
(
in
chlorpromazine
equivalents
)
was
264
±
165
.
07
mg
(
range
,
50
to
850
mg
)
.
All
patients
were
using
typical
antipsychotic
agents
or
risperidone
,
and
the
method
of
administration
was
oral
.
None
had
a
history
of
abuse
of
,
or
dependence
upon
,
drugs
or
alcohol
or
both
.
2
.
Comparison
of
the
groups
The
rate
of
noncompliance
over
a
one
-
year
period
was
48
%
(
n
=
24
)
.
Figure
1
shows
compliance
over
time
(
in
months
)
.
Comparing
both
groups
,
there
were
no
differences
in
the
demographic
variables
(
Table
1
)
,
including
the
mean
ages
(
33
.
57
±
7
.
08
for
compliant
patients
and
32
.
50
±
6
.
62
for
noncompliant
patients
,
p
=
0
.
581
)
.
There
were
no
differences
in
the
total
length
of
psychiatric
treatment
,
in
the
number
of
previous
hospitalizations
,
in
the
subtype
of
schizophrenia
or
in
the
mean
daily
dose
of
the
antipsychotic
.
There
was
a
significant
difference
in
the
length
of
treatment
at
the
current
institution
(
t
=
-
2
.
82
,
df
=
48
,
p
=
0
.
007
)
.
Mean
length
was
17
.
54
±
11
.
59
months
in
the
noncompliant
group
and
42
.
53
±
41
.
87
months
in
the
compliant
group
.
Table
2
shows
the
BPRS
-
A
values
for
both
groups
.
Although
not
significant
,
there
was
a
tendency
toward
a
worse
evolution
in
the
psychopathology
of
the
patients
of
the
noncompliant
group
.
3
.
Comparison
between
the
institutions
The
institutions
were
homogeneous
regarding
mean
age
(
HC
:
33
.
6
±
5
.
8
years
;
SC
:
32
.
55
±
7
.
5
years
;
p
=
0
.
576
)
and
the
other
demographic
characteristics
(
Table
3
)
.
There
was
a
significant
difference
(
p
=
0
.
004
)
in
compliance
between
the
two
institutions
.
Compliance
was
higher
among
HC
patients
(
34
%
,
n
=
17
)
than
among
SC
patients
(
18
%
,
n
=
9
)
.
With
regard
to
psychopathology
,
there
was
no
difference
between
the
groups
from
the
two
institutions
(
Table
4
)
.
There
was
a
significant
difference
(
p
=
0
.
001
)
in
the
item
"
length
of
treatment
at
the
institution
"
,
which
was
,
on
average
,
46
.
52
±
42
.
92
months
at
the
HC
and
16
.
92
±
11
.
27
months
at
the
SC
.
The
"
length
of
treatment
at
the
institution
"
was
also
compared
between
the
subgroups
of
compliant
and
noncompliant
patients
at
the
two
institutions
.
Among
the
compliant
patients
,
the
length
of
treatment
was
significantly
higher
(
p
=
0
.
005
)
at
the
HC
(
55
.
58
±
45
.
97
months
)
than
at
the
SC
(
17
.
88
±
14
.
2
months
)
.
No
such
difference
was
observed
among
the
noncompliant
patients
(
HC
:
20
.
83
±
16
.
27
months
;
SC
:
16
.
44
±
9
.
93
months
,
p
=
0
.
434
)
.
Comparison
of
the
data
regarding
the
disease
revealed
a
significant
difference
(
p
=
0
.
0342
)
in
the
number
of
hospitalizations
between
the
noncompliant
patients
at
the
HC
and
those
at
the
SC
(
Table
5
)
but
not
between
the
compliant
patients
at
the
two
.
4
.
Comparison
between
the
groups
using
the
ROMI
scale
None
of
the
items
of
the
ROMI
scale
differed
significantly
between
the
compliant
and
the
noncompliant
group
.
5
.
Reasons
for
compliance
The
responses
to
the
ROMI
open
question
(
"
What
is
your
main
motivation
for
taking
the
medication
?
"
)
were
grouped
into
four
main
reasons
,
based
on
the
items
addressed
in
the
closed
questions
:
"
perceived
day
-
to
-
day
benefit
"
,
"
relapse
prevention
"
,
"
respect
for
authority
"
and
"
fear
of
hospitalization
"
.
"
Perceived
day
-
to
-
day
benefit
"
(
e
.
g
.
improved
sleep
,
tranquility
,
fewer
voices
,
organization
of
thoughts
,
etc
.
)
was
the
main
reason
for
wanting
to
take
the
medication
(
88
%
,
n
=
44
)
,
followed
by
"
relapse
prevention
"
(
¨
6
%
,
n
=
6
)
,
"
respect
for
authority
"
(
4
%
,
n
=
2
)
and
"
fear
of
hospitalization
"
(
2
%
,
n
=
1
)
.
With
regard
to
the
ROMI
"
closed
questions
"
,
the
item
"
perceived
day
-
to
-
day
benefit
"
was
most
often
given
as
the
main
reason
for
compliance
.
Table
6
shows
the
degree
of
influence
of
each
of
the
other
items
.
6
.
Reasons
for
noncompliance
In
the
ROMI
open
question
(
"
What
is
your
main
motivation
for
not
taking
the
medication
?
"
)
,
most
of
the
patients
denied
that
there
were
any
reasons
for
noncompliance
(
40
%
,
n
=
20
)
.
The
responses
to
this
question
were
also
grouped
based
on
the
items
addressed
in
the
closed
questions
(
Table
7
)
.
Two
of
the
responses
given
could
not
be
categorized
in
any
of
the
"
closed
"
items
.
One
patient
reported
"
forgetfulness
"
and
five
mentioned
"
a
desire
to
be
normal
"
(
10
%
)
.
In
the
"
closed
questions
"
(
Table
8
)
,
the
item
"
distressed
by
side
effects
"
was
the
main
reason
given
for
noncompliance
.
Discussion
Compliance
may
be
defined
as
to
what
degree
the
behavior
of
a
person
is
in
agreement
with
the
counsel
offered
by
the
physician
or
health
clinic
professional
.
27
For
various
reasons
,
it
is
a
theme
that
is
difficult
to
study
.
First
,
there
are
different
ways
to
rate
compliance
,
and
there
is
little
concordance
among
the
different
measurements
.
7
Second
,
compliance
is
rarely
an
all
-
or
-
nothing
proposition
and
may
include
omission
errors
,
errors
in
dosage
or
administration
of
medications
,
as
well
as
the
influence
of
factors
such
as
the
use
of
medications
that
were
not
prescribed
.
28
In
the
psychiatric
literature
,
demographic
variables
have
not
been
consistently
correlated
with
compliance
in
schizophrenia
.
29
-
32
The
severity
of
the
disorder
,
however
,
has
been
found
to
correlate
with
such
compliance
,
33
which
is
understandable
since
patients
presenting
more
severe
psychopathology
would
be
expected
to
be
less
compliant
.
Poor
insight
(
in
the
sense
of
not
believing
that
one
is
sick
34
)
has
also
been
correlated
with
noncompliance
.
35
The
perception
of
benefit
and
a
subjective
sensation
of
well
-
being
seem
to
have
been
more
consistently
correlated
with
compliance
.
36
-
37
Comorbidity
with
alcohol
abuse
or
abuse
of
other
substances
is
a
strong
predictor
of
noncompliance
.
38
In
one
study
,
one
-
fourth
to
two
-
thirds
of
the
patients
who
discontinued
the
use
of
antipsychotics
reported
side
effects
as
the
main
reason
for
noncompliance
.
39
Among
outpatients
,
reporting
side
effects
has
been
correlated
with
,
or
found
to
be
predictive
of
,
noncompliance
.
25
In
the
literature
,
patients
who
use
depot
preparations
present
a
lower
rate
of
noncompliance
than
do
those
who
use
oral
medications
.
5
Little
or
no
correlation
has
been
found
between
complexity
of
the
administration
of
medication
and
compliance
in
schizophrenia
.
9
,
25
Supervision
of
the
intake
of
medications
by
family
or
friends
seems
to
be
correlated
with
higher
rates
of
compliance
.
37
Practical
difficulties
,
such
as
financial
inability
to
purchase
the
medicine
or
pay
for
transportation
(
homelessness
,
for
example
)
,
may
be
important
factors
.
40
Finally
,
the
literature
shows
that
,
although
the
process
of
interaction
between
physicians
and
patients
has
yet
to
be
fully
investigated
,
a
positive
therapeutic
alliance
seems
to
be
crucial
for
compliance
.
However
,
there
are
important
methodological
problems
that
make
it
difficult
of
draw
conclusions
regarding
this
issue
.
41
The
rate
of
noncompliance
found
in
our
sample
over
a
one
-
year
period
(
48
%
)
is
in
agreement
with
those
found
in
the
literature
(
approximately
50
%
6
,
9
,
25
)
.
The
method
used
to
rate
compliance
(
written
family
report
)
has
many
limitations
when
compared
to
other
methods
such
as
pill
counting
,
screening
blood
or
urine
for
drugs
,
etc
.
However
,
Park
&
Lipman
42
showed
that
it
is
a
reliable
method
for
detecting
gross
errors
in
compliance
.
In
addition
,
one
must
take
into
account
the
fact
that
any
method
used
may
lead
to
false
perception
of
compliance
(
since
patients
may
,
for
example
,
want
to
know
the
reason
for
such
measures
or
modify
their
compliance
when
under
study
)
.
Nevertheless
,
the
length
of
follow
-
up
assessment
was
prolonged
,
and
different
antipsychotics
were
used
,
which
would
have
made
it
difficult
to
count
pills
or
screen
for
medications
.
Although
there
are
undoubtedly
errors
,
this
method
seems
to
be
the
means
of
determining
compliance
that
is
most
commonly
used
by
physicians
in
their
daily
clinical
practice
.
The
duration
of
treatment
at
the
institution
in
question
was
also
an
important
point
.
We
found
that
patients
who
had
been
undergoing
treatment
for
a
longer
length
of
time
were
more
compliant
.
This
difference
might
be
seen
as
a
consequence
rather
than
as
a
cause
since
more
compliant
patients
tend
to
stay
longer
at
the
institution
.
In
addition
,
it
is
possible
that
the
initial
phase
of
treatment
in
a
psychiatric
institution
can
determine
future
compliance
.
With
regard
to
abuse
of
,
or
dependence
on
,
drugs
or
alcohol
or
both
,
the
results
of
the
present
study
do
not
confirm
the
data
in
the
literature
.
It
was
intriguing
that
there
was
no
such
report
among
the
patients
in
the
sample
.
We
believe
that
this
is
due
to
a
bias
related
to
the
patient
belief
that
the
medications
should
not
be
taken
concomitantly
with
alcohol
or
other
drugs
and
patients
might
be
afraid
of
being
"
caught
"
by
the
assessor
,
who
could
tell
their
family
or
their
physician
about
it
.
In
addition
,
the
use
/
abuse
was
not
investigated
in
depth
in
the
present
study
(
using
specific
scales
or
analysis
of
blood
and
urine
,
for
example
)
.
Another
possible
source
of
error
may
have
been
the
greater
number
of
women
in
the
sample
since
women
tend
to
present
lower
rates
of
such
use
/
abuse
.
An
important
point
was
the
severity
of
the
psychopathology
among
the
compliant
and
noncompliant
groups
.
We
observed
an
initial
worsening
,
which
tended
to
remain
constant
during
the
follow
-
up
period
in
the
noncompliant
group
.
This
initial
worsening
may
have
been
related
to
noncompliance
,
but
this
is
difficult
to
analyze
.
In
this
case
,
as
in
the
case
of
treatment
duration
at
the
institution
,
it
is
difficult
to
establish
a
causal
direction
since
noncompliance
naturally
leads
to
a
worsening
of
symptoms
,
and
vice
-
versa
.
The
differences
found
between
the
institutions
cannot
be
explained
by
the
demographic
characteristics
since
the
group
was
demographically
homogeneous
.
Longer
treatment
duration
at
the
institution
seems
to
have
been
the
reason
for
greater
compliance
.
However
,
this
difference
was
observed
only
among
compliant
patients
and
not
among
noncompliant
patients
in
follow
-
up
treatment
for
the
same
(
shorter
)
length
of
time
at
both
institutions
.
The
ROMI
scale
did
not
accurately
predict
patient
behavior
toward
compliance
since
there
was
a
concordance
in
the
responses
given
by
both
groups
.
It
is
unlikely
that
this
failure
was
related
to
the
use
of
an
expanded
version
since
the
version
used
contains
all
of
the
items
of
the
original
scale
.
The
main
motivation
for
compliance
was
the
perception
of
a
potential
benefit
in
daily
life
.
Patients
need
to
feel
better
regarding
something
that
disturbs
them
(
e
.
g
.
sleep
disturbance
,
anxiety
,
hearing
voices
,
disorganized
thoughts
,
etc
)
.
It
is
well
known
that
improvement
takes
time
,
and
patients
must
be
aware
of
that
.
The
influence
of
the
family
manifested
itself
in
the
closed
questions
(
"
positive
family
belief
"
and
"
supervision
"
)
.
Another
interesting
point
is
that
there
was
a
gradation
of
only
28
%
,
with
a
strong
degree
of
influence
,
in
the
positive
relationship
with
the
physician
.
In
a
more
careful
analysis
,
however
,
this
item
presented
the
lowest
percentage
of
"
no
influence
"
responses
(
18
%
)
.
In
fact
,
the
overall
degree
of
influence
was
82
%
(
"
mild
"
or
"
strong
"
influence
)
.
This
item
was
considered
somehow
important
for
compliance
.
It
is
intriguing
to
see
that
,
on
the
open
question
,
40
%
of
the
patients
stated
that
there
was
no
excuse
for
noncompliance
(
Table
7
)
,
despite
the
fact
that
half
of
them
would
become
noncompliant
during
the
follow
-
up
assessment
.
Fenton
7
drew
attention
to
this
dichotomy
(
a
disjunction
between
belief
and
behavior
,
very
likely
to
be
found
in
schizophrenia
)
.
On
the
open
question
,
36
%
of
the
patients
reported
that
the
side
effects
(
especially
anticholinergic
and
extrapyramidal
)
were
the
main
reason
for
noncompliance
.
Taking
into
consideration
the
fact
that
approximately
40
%
denied
having
any
reason
for
noncompliance
,
of
those
who
had
a
reason
,
60
%
said
that
the
reason
was
the
distress
caused
by
side
effects
.
The
same
was
seen
on
the
closed
questions
.
We
found
a
rate
of
39
%
for
"
strong
degree
of
influence
"
and
22
%
for
"
mild
degree
of
influence
"
.
Finally
,
two
items
appeared
in
the
open
questions
and
were
not
considered
by
the
ROMI
closed
questions
.
The
first
was
"
a
desire
to
be
normal
"
,
which
is
different
from
"
denial
of
the
disease
"
or
"
lack
of
insight
"
.
The
other
was
"
forgetfulness
"
,
which
,
despite
having
been
reported
by
only
one
patient
,
shows
the
importance
of
practical
tips
to
help
patients
to
remember
to
take
the
medications
.
7
Conclusions
In
the
present
study
,
we
found
a
high
rate
of
noncompliance
during
the
one
-
year
follow
-
up
of
patients
with
schizophrenia
.
This
has
important
consequences
for
the
patients
,
for
their
families
and
for
society
.
Demographic
variables
were
not
found
to
be
correlated
with
compliance
in
this
study
.
The
initiation
of
treatment
at
an
institution
seems
to
be
the
period
in
which
the
patient
is
most
vulnerable
to
noncompliance
.
Therefore
,
it
may
be
crucial
to
give
special
attention
to
compliance
during
this
period
.
We
found
the
severity
of
the
psychopathology
to
be
greater
in
the
noncompliant
group
.
Although
severity
was
not
necessarily
a
cause
for
noncompliance
,
it
may
act
in
a
bidirectional
fashion
(
noncompliance
causing
worsening
of
symptoms
and
worsening
leading
to
lower
compliance
)
.
In
the
present
study
,
it
was
not
possible
to
predict
the
behavior
toward
compliance
using
a
scale
at
the
beginning
of
the
assessment
period
.
This
method
was
useful
,
however
,
for
learning
what
patients
think
about
the
factors
that
influence
their
compliance
.
In
their
opinion
,
the
factor
that
is
most
important
for
compliance
is
the
perception
of
a
day
-
to
-
day
benefit
,
and
the
factor
that
is
most
important
for
noncompliance
is
the
inconvenience
caused
by
side
effects
.
Noncompliance
has
multiple
causes
,
and
the
most
important
ones
,
alone
or
in
combination
,
can
and
should
be
identified
in
the
individual
cases
,
thereby
facilitating
the
prevention
of
such
noncompliance
.
In
order
to
manage
noncompliance
,
a
broad
understanding
of
the
factors
involved
,
including
the
patient
,
the
disease
,
the
treatment
and
environmental
factors
,
is
required
.
Further
studies
should
be
carried
out
in
our
milieu
in
order
to
assess
the
possible
inherent
characteristics
of
treatment
compliance
in
Brazilian
patients
.
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[
Subjective
response
to
neuroleptic
medication
:
a
validation
study
of
the
Italian
version
of
the
Drug
Attitude
Inventory
(
DAI
)
]
.
Epidemiol
Psichiatr
Soc
.
2001
;
10
(
2
)
:
107
-
14
.
Italian
.
[
Medline
]
13
.
Garcia
Cabeza
I
,
Sanchez
Diaz
EI
,
Sanz
Amador
M
,
Gutierrez
Rodriguez
M
,
Gonzalez
de
Chavez
M
.
[
Factors
related
to
treatment
adherence
in
schizophrenic
patients
]
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Actas
Esp
Psiquiatr
.
1999
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27
(
4
)
:
211
-
6
.
Spanish
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14
.
Cheng
HL
,
Yu
YW
.
[
Validation
of
the
Chinese
version
of
"
the
Drug
Attitude
Inventory
"
]
.
Kaohsiung
J
Med
Sci
.
1997
;
13
(
6
)
:
370
-
7
.
Chinese
.
15
.
Weiden
P
,
Rapkin
B
,
Mott
T
,
Zygmunt
A
,
Goldman
D
,
Horvitz
-
Lennon
M
,
et
al
.
Rating
of
medication
influences
(
ROMI
)
scale
in
schizophrenia
.
Schizophr
Bull
.
1994
;
20
(
2
)
:
297
-
310
.
[
Medline
]
16
.
Loffler
W
,
Kilian
R
,
Toumi
M
,
Angermeyer
MC
.
Schizophrenic
patients
'
subjective
reasons
for
compliance
and
noncompliance
with
neuroleptic
treatment
.
Pharmacopsychiatry
.
2003
;
36
(
3
)
:
105
-
12
.
17
.
Vauth
R
,
Loschmann
C
,
Rusch
N
,
Corrigan
PW
.
Understanding
adherence
to
neuroleptic
treatment
in
schizophreniai
.
Psychiatry
Res
.
2004
;
126
(
1
)
:
43
-
9
.
[
Medline
]
18
.
Rosa
MA
,
Marcolin
MA
.
Tradução
e
adaptação
da
Escala
de
Influências
Medicamentosas
(
ROMI
)
:
um
instrumento
para
avaliar
a
aderência
ao
tratamento
.
J
Bras
Psiquiatr
.
2000
;
49
(
10
-
12
)
:
405
-
12
.
19
.
American
Psychiatric
Association
.
Diagnostic
and
statistical
manual
of
mental
disorders
:
DSM
-
IV
.
4th
ed
.
Washington
DC
:
APA
;
1994
.
20
.
Woerner
MG
,
Mannuzza
S
,
Kane
JM
.
Anchoring
the
BPRS
:
an
aid
to
improved
reliability
.
Psychopharmacol
Bull
.
1988
;
24
(
1
)
:
112
-
7
.
21
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Elkis
E
,
Alves
TM
,
Eizenman
IB
.
Reliability
of
the
Brazilian
version
of
the
BPRS
anchored
[
abstract
]
.
Schizophr
Res
.
1999
;
36
(
1
-
3
)
:
7
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8
.
22
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Thompson
PA
,
Buckley
PF
,
Meltzer
HY
.
The
brief
psychiatric
rating
scale
:
effect
of
scaling
system
on
clinical
response
assessment
.
J
Clin
Psychopharmacol
.
1994
;
14
(
5
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6
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[
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23
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Rijcken
CA
,
Monster
TB
,
Brouwers
JR
,
de
Jong
-
van
den
Berg
LT
.
Chlorpromazine
equivalents
versus
defined
daily
doses
:
how
to
compare
antipsychotic
drug
doses
?
J
Clin
Psychopharmacol
.
2003
;
23
(
6
)
:
657
-
9
.
[
Medline
]
24
.
Woods
SW
.
Chlorpromazine
equivalent
doses
for
the
newer
atypical
antipsychotics
.
J
Clin
Psychiatry
.
2003
;
64
(
6
)
:
663
-
7
.
Review
.
[
Medline
]
25
.
Buchanan
A
.
A
two
-
year
prospective
study
of
treatment
compliance
in
patients
with
schizophrenia
.
Psychol
Med
.
1992
;
22
(
3
)
:
787
-
97
.
[
Medline
]
26
.
Mazumdar
S
,
Liu
KS
,
Houck
PR
,
Reynolds
CF
3rd
.
Intent
-
to
-
treat
analysis
for
longitudinal
clinical
trials
:
coping
with
the
challenge
of
missing
values
.
J
Psychiatr
Res
.
1999
;
33
(
2
)
:
87
-
95
.
[
Medline
]
27
.
Haynes
RB
,
Taylor
DW
,
Sackett
DL
.
Compliance
in
health
care
.
Baltimore
:
Johns
Hopkins
University
Press
;
c1979
.
p
.
1
-
10
.
28
.
Blackwell
B
.
Treatment
adherence
.
Br
J
Psychiatry
.
1976
;
129
:
513
-
31
.
Review
.
[
Medline
]
29
.
Haynes
RB
.
A
critical
review
of
the
"
determinants
"
of
patient
compliance
with
therapeutic
regimens
.
In
:
Sacket
DL
,
Haynes
RB
,
editors
.
Compliance
with
therapeutic
regimens
.
Baltimore
,
MD
:
Johns
Hopkins
University
Press
;
1976
.
p
.
26
-
39
.
30
.
Lacro
JP
,
Dunn
LB
,
Dolder
CR
,
Leckband
SG
,
Jeste
DV
.
Prevalence
of
and
risk
factors
for
medication
nonadherence
in
patients
with
schizophrenia
:
a
comprehensive
review
of
recent
literature
.
J
Clin
Psychiatry
.
2002
;
63
(
10
)
:
892
-
909
.
Review
.
[
Medline
]
31
.
Weiss
KA
,
Smith
TE
,
Hull
JW
,
Piper
AC
,
Huppert
JD
.
Predictors
of
risk
of
nonadherence
in
outpatients
with
schizophrenia
and
other
psychotic
disorders
.
Schizophr
Bull
.
2002
;
28
(
2
)
:
341
-
9
.
[
Medline
]
32
.
Hudson
TJ
,
Owen
RR
,
Thrush
CR
,
Han
X
,
Pyne
JM
,
Thapa
P
,
Sullivan
G
.
A
pilot
study
of
barriers
to
medication
adherence
in
schizophrenia
.
J
Clin
Psychiatry
.
2004
;
65
(
2
)
:
211
-
6
.
[
Medline
]
33
.
Bartko
G
,
Herczeg
I
,
Zador
G
.
Clinical
symptomatology
and
drug
compliance
in
schizophrenic
patients
.
Acta
Psychiatr
Scand
.
1988
;
77
(
1
)
:
74
-
6
.
[
Medline
]
34
.
David
AS
.
Insight
and
psychosis
.
Br
J
Psychiatry
.
1990
;
156
:
798
-
808
.
Review
.
[
Medline
]
35
.
McEvoy
JP
,
Apperson
LJ
,
Appelbaum
PS
,
Ortlip
P
,
Brecosky
J
,
Hammil
K
,
et
al
.
Insight
in
schizophrenia
:
Its
relationships
to
acute
psychopathology
.
J
Nerv
Ment
Dis
.
1989
;
177
(
1
)
:
43
-
7
.
36
.
Marder
SR
,
Mebane
A
,
Chien
CP
,
Winslade
WJ
,
Swann
E
,
Van
Putten
T
.
A
comparison
of
patients
who
refuse
and
consent
to
neuroleptic
treatment
.
Am
J
Psychiatry
.
1983
;
140
(
4
)
:
470
-
2
.
[
Medline
]
37
.
Razali
MS
,
Yahya
H
.
Compliance
with
treatment
in
schizophrenia
:
a
drug
intervention
program
in
a
developing
country
.
Acta
Psychiatr
Scand
.
1995
;
91
(
5
)
:
331
-
5
.
[
Medline
]
38
.
Regier
DA
,
Farmer
ME
,
Rae
DS
,
Locke
BZ
,
Keith
SJ
,
Judd
LL
,
Goodwin
FK
.
Comorbidity
of
mental
disorders
with
alcohol
and
other
drug
abuse
.
Results
from
the
Epidemiologic
Catchment
Area
(
ECA
)
Study
.
JAMA
.
1990
;
264
(
19
)
:
2511
-
8
.
[
Medline
]
39
.
del
Campo
EJ
,
Carr
CF
,
Correa
E
.
Rehospitalized
schizophrenics
.
What
they
report
about
illness
,
treatment
and
compliance
.
J
Psychosoc
Nurs
Ment
Health
Serv
.
1983
;
21
(
6
)
:
29
-
33
.
[
Medline
]
40
.
Sullivan
G
,
Wells
KB
,
Morgenstern
H
,
Leake
B
.
Identifying
modifiable
risk
factors
for
rehospitalization
:
a
case
-
control
study
of
seriously
mentally
ill
persons
in
Mississippi
.
Am
J
Psychiatry
.
1995
;
152
(
12
)
:
1749
-
56
.
[
Medline
]
41
.
Bebbington
PE
.
The
content
and
context
of
compliance
.
Int
Clin
Psychopharmacol
.
1995
;
9
(
Suppl
5
)
:
41
-
50
.
Review
.
42
.
Park
LC
,
Lipman
RS
.
A
comparison
of
patient
dosage
deviation
reports
with
pill
counts
.
Psychopharmacologia
.
1964
;
6
(
4
)
:
299
-
302
.
Correspondence
to
Moacyr
A
Rosa
Instituto
de
Psiquiatria
do
Hospital
das
Clínicas
da
Faculdade
de
Medicina
da
Universidade
de
São
Paulo
Rua
Ovídio
Pires
de
Campos
,
s
/
n
05403
-
010
São
Paulo
,
SP
,
Brazil
Phone
/
Fax
:
(
5511
)
3069
-
6971
E
-
mail
:
moarosa
@
yahoo
.
com
Financing
:
None
Conflicts
of
interests
:
None
Submitted
:
21
December
2003
Accepted
:
3
November
2004
Psychiatry
Unit
,
Universidade
de
São
Paulo
(
USP
)
,
São
Paulo
(
SP
)
,
Brazil
;
Department
of
Psychiatry
and
Medical
Psychology
,
Santa
Casa
de
Misericórdia
de
São
Paulo
(
SP
)
,
Brazil
.
Study
carried
out
in
order
to
obtain
an
academic
degree
(
MS
in
Medicine
)
in
1998
.
Presented
as
a
poster
at
the
1999
APA
Annual
Meeting
in
Washington
DC
,
USA
.
©
2006
Associação
Brasileira
de
Psiquiatria
(
ABP
)
Rua
Pedro
de
Toledo
,
967
-
casa
1
04039
-
032
São
Paulo
SP
Brazil
Tel
.
:
+
55
11
5081
-
6799
Fax
:
+
55
11
5579
-
6210
Scheduling
Tasks
Very
often
,
we
have
`
housekeeping
'
tasks
which
have
to
be
done
at
a
certain
time
,
or
every
so
often
.
If
the
task
is
to
be
done
by
a
process
,
we
do
it
by
putting
it
in
the
crontab
file
.
If
the
task
is
to
be
done
by
a
kernel
module
,
we
have
two
possibilities
.
The
first
is
to
put
a
process
in
the
crontab
file
which
will
wake
up
the
module
by
a
system
call
when
necessary
,
for
example
by
opening
a
file
.
This
is
terribly
inefficient
,
however
--
we
run
a
new
process
off
of
crontab
,
read
a
new
executable
to
memory
,
and
all
this
just
to
wake
up
a
kernel
module
which
is
in
memory
anyway
.
Instead
of
doing
that
,
we
can
create
a
function
that
will
be
called
once
for
every
timer
interrupt
.
The
way
we
do
this
is
we
create
a
task
,
held
in
a
struct
tq_struct
,
which
will
hold
a
pointer
to
the
function
.
Then
,
we
use
queue_task
to
put
that
task
on
a
task
list
called
tq_timer
,
which
is
the
list
of
tasks
to
be
executed
on
the
next
timer
interrupt
.
Because
we
want
the
function
to
keep
on
being
executed
,
we
need
to
put
it
back
on
tq_timer
whenever
it
is
called
,
for
the
next
timer
interrupt
.
There
'
s
one
more
point
we
need
to
remember
here
.
When
a
module
is
removed
by
rmmod
,
first
its
reference
count
is
checked
.
If
it
is
zero
,
module_cleanup
is
called
.
Then
,
the
module
is
removed
from
memory
with
all
its
functions
.
Nobody
checks
to
see
if
the
timer
'
s
task
list
happens
to
contain
a
pointer
to
one
of
those
functions
,
which
will
no
longer
be
available
.
Ages
later
(
from
the
computer
'
s
perspective
,
from
a
human
perspective
it
'
s
nothing
,
less
than
a
hundredth
of
a
second
)
,
the
kernel
has
a
timer
interrupt
and
tries
to
call
the
function
on
the
task
list
.
Unfortunately
,
the
function
is
no
longer
there
.
In
most
cases
,
the
memory
page
where
it
sat
is
unused
,
and
you
get
an
ugly
error
message
.
But
if
some
other
code
is
now
sitting
at
the
same
memory
location
,
things
could
get
very
ugly
.
Unfortunately
,
we
don
'
t
have
an
easy
way
to
unregister
a
task
from
a
task
list
.
Since
cleanup_module
can
'
t
return
with
an
error
code
(
it
'
s
a
void
function
)
,
the
solution
is
to
not
let
it
return
at
all
.
Instead
,
it
calls
sleep_on
or
module_sleep_on
10
.
1
to
put
the
rmmod
process
to
sleep
.
Before
that
,
it
informs
the
function
called
on
the
timer
interrupt
to
stop
attaching
itself
by
setting
a
global
variable
.
Then
,
on
the
next
timer
interrupt
,
the
rmmod
process
will
be
woken
up
,
when
our
function
is
no
longer
in
the
queue
and
it
'
s
safe
to
remove
the
module
.
ex
sched
.
c
/
*
sched
.
c
-
scheduale
a
function
to
be
called
on
*
every
timer
interrupt
.
*
/
/
*
Copyright
(
C
)
1998
by
Ori
Pomerantz
*
/
/
*
The
necessary
header
files
*
/
/
*
Standard
in
kernel
modules
*
/
#
include
<
linux
/
kernel
.
h
>
/
*
We
'
re
doing
kernel
work
*
/
#
include
<
linux
/
module
.
h
>
/
*
Specifically
,
a
module
*
/
/
*
Deal
with
CONFIG_MODVERSIONS
*
/
#
if
CONFIG_MODVERSIONS
==
1
#
define
MODVERSIONS
#
include
<
linux
/
modversions
.
h
>
#
endif
/
*
Necessary
because
we
use
the
proc
fs
*
/
#
include
<
linux
/
proc_fs
.
h
>
/
*
We
scheduale
tasks
here
*
/
#
include
<
linux
/
tqueue
.
h
>
/
*
We
also
need
the
ability
to
put
ourselves
to
sleep
*
and
wake
up
later
*
/
#
include
<
linux
/
sched
.
h
>
/
*
In
2
.
2
.
3
/
usr
/
include
/
linux
/
version
.
h
includes
a
*
macro
for
this
,
but
2
.
0
.
35
doesn
'
t
-
so
I
add
it
*
here
if
necessary
.
*
/
#
ifndef
KERNEL_VERSION
#
define
KERNEL_VERSION
(
a
,
b
,
c
)
((
a
)
*
65536
+
(
b
)
*
256
+
(
c
))
#
endif
/
*
The
number
of
times
the
timer
interrupt
has
been
*
called
so
far
*
/
static
int
TimerIntrpt
=
0
;
/
*
This
is
used
by
cleanup
,
to
prevent
the
module
from
*
being
unloaded
while
intrpt_routine
is
still
in
*
the
task
queue
*
/
static
struct
wait_queue
*
WaitQ
=
NULL
;
static
void
intrpt_routine
(
void
*
)
;
/
*
The
task
queue
structure
for
this
task
,
from
tqueue
.
h
*
/
static
struct
tq_struct
Task
=
{
NULL
,
/
*
Next
item
in
list
-
queue_task
will
do
*
this
for
us
*
/
0
,
/
*
A
flag
meaning
we
haven
'
t
been
inserted
*
into
a
task
queue
yet
*
/
intrpt_routine
,
/
*
The
function
to
run
*
/
NULL
/
*
The
void
*
parameter
for
that
function
*
/
}
;
/
*
This
function
will
be
called
on
every
timer
*
interrupt
.
Notice
the
void
*
pointer
-
task
functions
*
can
be
used
for
more
than
one
purpose
,
each
time
*
getting
a
different
parameter
.
*
/
static
void
intrpt_routine
(
void
*
irrelevant
)
{
/
*
Increment
the
counter
*
/
TimerIntrpt
++
;
/
*
If
cleanup
wants
us
to
die
*
/
if
(
WaitQ
!
=
NULL
)
wake_up
(
&
WaitQ
)
;
/
*
Now
cleanup_module
can
return
*
/
else
/
*
Put
ourselves
back
in
the
task
queue
*
/
queue_task
(
&
Task
,
&
tq_timer
)
;
}
/
*
Put
data
into
the
proc
fs
file
.
*
/
int
procfile_read
(
char
*
buffer
,
char
**
buffer_location
,
off_t
offset
,
int
buffer_length
,
int
zero
)
{
int
len
;
/
*
The
number
of
bytes
actually
used
*
/
/
*
This
is
static
so
it
will
still
be
in
memory
*
when
we
leave
this
function
*
/
static
char
my_buffer
[
80
]
;
static
int
count
=
1
;
/
*
We
give
all
of
our
information
in
one
go
,
so
if
*
the
anybody
asks
us
if
we
have
more
information
*
the
answer
should
always
be
no
.
*
/
if
(
offset
>
0
)
return
0
;
/
*
Fill
the
buffer
and
get
its
length
*
/
len
=
sprintf
(
my_buffer
,
"
Timer
was
called
%
d
times
so
far
\
n
"
,
TimerIntrpt
)
;
count
++
;
/
*
Tell
the
function
which
called
us
where
the
*
buffer
is
*
/
*
buffer_location
=
my_buffer
;
/
*
Return
the
length
*
/
return
len
;
}
struct
proc_dir_entry
Our_Proc_File
=
{
0
,
/
*
Inode
number
-
ignore
,
it
will
be
filled
by
*
proc_register_dynamic
*
/
5
,
/
*
Length
of
the
file
name
*
/
"
sched
"
,
/
*
The
file
name
*
/
S_IFREG
|
S_IRUGO
,
/
*
File
mode
-
this
is
a
regular
file
which
can
*
be
read
by
its
owner
,
its
group
,
and
everybody
*
else
*
/
1
,
/
*
Number
of
links
(
directories
where
*
the
file
is
referenced
)
*
/
0
,
0
,
/
*
The
uid
and
gid
for
the
file
-
we
give
*
it
to
root
*
/
80
,
/
*
The
size
of
the
file
reported
by
ls
.
*
/
NULL
,
/
*
functions
which
can
be
done
on
the
*
inode
(
linking
,
removing
,
etc
.
)
-
we
don
'
t
*
support
any
.
*
/
procfile_read
,
/
*
The
read
function
for
this
file
,
the
function
called
*
when
somebody
tries
to
read
something
from
it
.
*
/
NULL
/
*
We
could
have
here
a
function
to
fill
the
*
file
'
s
inode
,
to
enable
us
to
play
with
*
permissions
,
ownership
,
etc
.
*
/
}
;
/
*
Initialize
the
module
-
register
the
proc
file
*
/
int
init_module
(
)
{
/
*
Put
the
task
in
the
tq_timer
task
queue
,
so
it
*
will
be
executed
at
next
timer
interrupt
*
/
queue_task
(
&
Task
,
&
tq_timer
)
;
/
*
Success
if
proc_register_dynamic
is
a
success
,
*
failure
otherwise
*
/
#
if
LINUX_VERSION_CODE
>
KERNEL_VERSION
(
2
,
2
,
0
)
return
proc_register
(
&
proc_root
,
&
Our_Proc_File
)
;
#
else
return
proc_register_dynamic
(
&
proc_root
,
&
Our_Proc_File
)
;
#
endif
}
/
*
Cleanup
*
/
void
cleanup_module
(
)
{
/
*
Unregister
our
/
proc
file
*
/
proc_unregister
(
&
proc_root
,
Our_Proc_File
.
low_ino
)
;
/
*
Sleep
until
intrpt_routine
is
called
one
last
*
time
.
This
is
necessary
,
because
otherwise
we
'
ll
*
deallocate
the
memory
holding
intrpt_routine
and
*
Task
while
tq_timer
still
references
them
.
*
Notice
that
here
we
don
'
t
allow
signals
to
*
interrupt
us
.
*
*
Since
WaitQ
is
now
not
NULL
,
this
automatically
*
tells
the
interrupt
routine
it
'
s
time
to
die
.
*
/
sleep_on
(
&
WaitQ
)
;
}
There
are
a
few
routine
maintenance
chores
that
must
be
performed
on
a
regular
basis
to
keep
a
PostgreSQL
server
running
smoothly
.
The
tasks
discussed
here
are
repetitive
in
nature
and
can
easily
be
automated
using
standard
Unix
tools
such
as
cron
scripts
.
But
it
is
the
database
administrator
'
s
responsibility
to
set
up
appropriate
scripts
,
and
to
check
that
they
execute
successfully
.
One
obvious
maintenance
task
is
creation
of
backup
copies
of
the
data
on
a
regular
schedule
.
Without
a
recent
backup
,
you
have
no
chance
of
recovery
after
a
catastrophe
(
disk
failure
,
fire
,
mistakenly
dropping
a
critical
table
,
etc
.
)
.
The
backup
and
recovery
mechanisms
available
in
PostgreSQL
are
discussed
at
length
in
Chapter
23
.
The
other
main
category
of
maintenance
task
is
periodic
"
vacuuming
"
of
the
database
.
This
activity
is
discussed
in
Section
22
.
1
.
Something
else
that
might
need
periodic
attention
is
log
file
management
.
This
is
discussed
in
Section
22
.
3
.
PostgreSQL
is
low
-
maintenance
compared
to
some
other
database
management
systems
.
Nonetheless
,
appropriate
attention
to
these
tasks
will
go
far
towards
ensuring
a
pleasant
and
productive
experience
with
the
system
.
22
.
1
.
Routine
Vacuuming
PostgreSQL
'
s
VACUUM
command
must
be
run
on
a
regular
basis
for
several
reasons
:
To
recover
disk
space
occupied
by
updated
or
deleted
rows
.
To
update
data
statistics
used
by
the
PostgreSQL
query
planner
.
To
protect
against
loss
of
very
old
data
due
to
transaction
ID
wraparound
.
The
frequency
and
scope
of
the
VACUUM
operations
performed
for
each
of
these
reasons
will
vary
depending
on
the
needs
of
each
site
.
Therefore
,
database
administrators
must
understand
these
issues
and
develop
an
appropriate
maintenance
strategy
.
This
section
concentrates
on
explaining
the
high
-
level
issues
;
for
details
about
command
syntax
and
so
on
,
see
the
VACUUM
reference
page
.
Beginning
in
PostgreSQL
7
.
2
,
the
standard
form
of
VACUUM
can
run
in
parallel
with
normal
database
operations
(
selects
,
inserts
,
updates
,
deletes
,
but
not
changes
to
table
definitions
)
.
Routine
vacuuming
is
therefore
not
nearly
as
intrusive
as
it
was
in
prior
releases
,
and
it
is
not
as
critical
to
try
to
schedule
it
at
low
-
usage
times
of
day
.
Beginning
in
PostgreSQL
8
.
0
,
there
are
configuration
parameters
that
can
be
adjusted
to
further
reduce
the
performance
impact
of
background
vacuuming
.
See
Section
17
.
4
.
4
.
An
automated
mechanism
for
performing
the
necessary
VACUUM
operations
has
been
added
in
PostgreSQL
8
.
1
.
See
Section
22
.
1
.
4
.
22
.
1
.
1
.
Recovering
disk
space
In
normal
PostgreSQL
operation
,
an
UPDATE
or
DELETE
of
a
row
does
not
immediately
remove
the
old
version
of
the
row
.
This
approach
is
necessary
to
gain
the
benefits
of
multiversion
concurrency
control
(
see
Chapter
12
)
:
the
row
version
must
not
be
deleted
while
it
is
still
potentially
visible
to
other
transactions
.
But
eventually
,
an
outdated
or
deleted
row
version
is
no
longer
of
interest
to
any
transaction
.
The
space
it
occupies
must
be
reclaimed
for
reuse
by
new
rows
,
to
avoid
infinite
growth
of
disk
space
requirements
.
This
is
done
by
running
VACUUM
.
Clearly
,
a
table
that
receives
frequent
updates
or
deletes
will
need
to
be
vacuumed
more
often
than
tables
that
are
seldom
updated
.
It
may
be
useful
to
set
up
periodic
cron
tasks
that
VACUUM
only
selected
tables
,
skipping
tables
that
are
known
not
to
change
often
.
This
is
only
likely
to
be
helpful
if
you
have
both
large
heavily
-
updated
tables
and
large
seldom
-
updated
tables
—
the
extra
cost
of
vacuuming
a
small
table
isn
'
t
enough
to
be
worth
worrying
about
.
There
are
two
variants
of
the
VACUUM
command
.
The
first
form
,
known
as
"
lazy
vacuum
"
or
just
VACUUM
,
marks
expired
data
in
tables
and
indexes
for
future
reuse
;
it
does
not
attempt
to
reclaim
the
space
used
by
this
expired
data
unless
the
space
is
at
the
end
of
the
table
and
an
exclusive
table
lock
can
be
easily
obtained
.
Unused
space
at
the
start
or
middle
of
the
file
does
not
result
in
the
file
being
shortened
and
space
returned
to
the
operating
system
.
This
variant
of
VACUUM
can
be
run
concurrently
with
normal
database
operations
.
The
second
form
is
the
VACUUM
FULL
command
.
This
uses
a
more
aggressive
algorithm
for
reclaiming
the
space
consumed
by
expired
row
versions
.
Any
space
that
is
freed
by
VACUUM
FULL
is
immediately
returned
to
the
operating
system
.
Unfortunately
,
this
variant
of
the
VACUUM
command
acquires
an
exclusive
lock
on
each
table
while
VACUUM
FULL
is
processing
it
.
Therefore
,
frequently
using
VACUUM
FULL
can
have
an
extremely
negative
effect
on
the
performance
of
concurrent
database
queries
.
The
standard
form
of
VACUUM
is
best
used
with
the
goal
of
maintaining
a
fairly
level
steady
-
state
usage
of
disk
space
.
If
you
need
to
return
disk
space
to
the
operating
system
you
can
use
VACUUM
FULL
—
but
what
'
s
the
point
of
releasing
disk
space
that
will
only
have
to
be
allocated
again
soon
?
Moderately
frequent
standard
VACUUM
runs
are
a
better
approach
than
infrequent
VACUUM
FULL
runs
for
maintaining
heavily
-
updated
tables
.
Recommended
practice
for
most
sites
is
to
schedule
a
database
-
wide
VACUUM
once
a
day
at
a
low
-
usage
time
of
day
,
supplemented
by
more
frequent
vacuuming
of
heavily
-
updated
tables
if
necessary
.
(
Some
installations
with
an
extremely
high
rate
of
data
modification
VACUUM
busy
tables
as
often
as
once
every
few
minutes
.
)
If
you
have
multiple
databases
in
a
cluster
,
don
'
t
forget
to
VACUUM
each
one
;
the
program
vacuumdb
may
be
helpful
.
VACUUM
FULL
is
recommended
for
cases
where
you
know
you
have
deleted
the
majority
of
rows
in
a
table
,
so
that
the
steady
-
state
size
of
the
table
can
be
shrunk
substantially
with
VACUUM
FULL
'
s
more
aggressive
approach
.
Use
plain
VACUUM
,
not
VACUUM
FULL
,
for
routine
vacuuming
for
space
recovery
.
If
you
have
a
table
whose
contents
are
deleted
on
a
periodic
basis
,
consider
doing
it
with
TRUNCATE
rather
than
using
DELETE
followed
by
VACUUM
.
TRUNCATE
removes
the
entire
content
of
the
table
immediately
,
without
requiring
a
subsequent
VACUUM
or
VACUUM
FULL
to
reclaim
the
now
-
unused
disk
space
.
22
.
1
.
2
.
Updating
planner
statistics
The
PostgreSQL
query
planner
relies
on
statistical
information
about
the
contents
of
tables
in
order
to
generate
good
plans
for
queries
.
These
statistics
are
gathered
by
the
ANALYZE
command
,
which
can
be
invoked
by
itself
or
as
an
optional
step
in
VACUUM
.
It
is
important
to
have
reasonably
accurate
statistics
,
otherwise
poor
choices
of
plans
may
degrade
database
performance
.
As
with
vacuuming
for
space
recovery
,
frequent
updates
of
statistics
are
more
useful
for
heavily
-
updated
tables
than
for
seldom
-
updated
ones
.
But
even
for
a
heavily
-
updated
table
,
there
may
be
no
need
for
statistics
updates
if
the
statistical
distribution
of
the
data
is
not
changing
much
.
A
simple
rule
of
thumb
is
to
think
about
how
much
the
minimum
and
maximum
values
of
the
columns
in
the
table
change
.
For
example
,
a
timestamp
column
that
contains
the
time
of
row
update
will
have
a
constantly
-
increasing
maximum
value
as
rows
are
added
and
updated
;
such
a
column
will
probably
need
more
frequent
statistics
updates
than
,
say
,
a
column
containing
URLs
for
pages
accessed
on
a
website
.
The
URL
column
may
receive
changes
just
as
often
,
but
the
statistical
distribution
of
its
values
probably
changes
relatively
slowly
.
It
is
possible
to
run
ANALYZE
on
specific
tables
and
even
just
specific
columns
of
a
table
,
so
the
flexibility
exists
to
update
some
statistics
more
frequently
than
others
if
your
application
requires
it
.
In
practice
,
however
,
the
usefulness
of
this
feature
is
doubtful
.
Beginning
in
PostgreSQL
7
.
2
,
ANALYZE
is
a
fairly
fast
operation
even
on
large
tables
,
because
it
uses
a
statistical
random
sampling
of
the
rows
of
a
table
rather
than
reading
every
single
row
.
So
it
'
s
probably
much
simpler
to
just
run
it
over
the
whole
database
every
so
often
.
Tip
:
Although
per
-
column
tweaking
of
ANALYZE
frequency
may
not
be
very
productive
,
you
may
well
find
it
worthwhile
to
do
per
-
column
adjustment
of
the
level
of
detail
of
the
statistics
collected
by
ANALYZE
.
Columns
that
are
heavily
used
in
WHERE
clauses
and
have
highly
irregular
data
distributions
may
require
a
finer
-
grain
data
histogram
than
other
columns
.
See
ALTER
TABLE
SET
STATISTICS
.
Recommended
practice
for
most
sites
is
to
schedule
a
database
-
wide
ANALYZE
once
a
day
at
a
low
-
usage
time
of
day
;
this
can
usefully
be
combined
with
a
nightly
VACUUM
.
However
,
sites
with
relatively
slowly
changing
table
statistics
may
find
that
this
is
overkill
,
and
that
less
-
frequent
ANALYZE
runs
are
sufficient
.
22
.
1
.
3
.
Preventing
transaction
ID
wraparound
failures
PostgreSQL
'
s
MVCC
transaction
semantics
depend
on
being
able
to
compare
transaction
ID
(
XID
)
numbers
:
a
row
version
with
an
insertion
XID
greater
than
the
current
transaction
'
s
XID
is
"
in
the
future
"
and
should
not
be
visible
to
the
current
transaction
.
But
since
transaction
IDs
have
limited
size
(
32
bits
at
this
writing
)
a
cluster
that
runs
for
a
long
time
(
more
than
4
billion
transactions
)
would
suffer
transaction
ID
wraparound
:
the
XID
counter
wraps
around
to
zero
,
and
all
of
a
sudden
transactions
that
were
in
the
past
appear
to
be
in
the
future
—
which
means
their
outputs
become
invisible
.
In
short
,
catastrophic
data
loss
.
(
Actually
the
data
is
still
there
,
but
that
'
s
cold
comfort
if
you
can
'
t
get
at
it
.
)
Prior
to
PostgreSQL
7
.
2
,
the
only
defense
against
XID
wraparound
was
to
re
-
initdb
at
least
every
4
billion
transactions
.
This
of
course
was
not
very
satisfactory
for
high
-
traffic
sites
,
so
a
better
solution
has
been
devised
.
The
new
approach
allows
a
server
to
remain
up
indefinitely
,
without
initdb
or
any
sort
of
restart
.
The
price
is
this
maintenance
requirement
:
every
table
in
the
database
must
be
vacuumed
at
least
once
every
billion
transactions
.
In
practice
this
isn
'
t
an
onerous
requirement
,
but
since
the
consequences
of
failing
to
meet
it
can
be
complete
data
loss
(
not
just
wasted
disk
space
or
slow
performance
)
,
some
special
provisions
have
been
made
to
help
database
administrators
avoid
disaster
.
For
each
database
in
the
cluster
,
PostgreSQL
keeps
track
of
the
time
of
the
last
database
-
wide
VACUUM
.
When
any
database
approaches
the
billion
-
transaction
danger
level
,
the
system
begins
to
emit
warning
messages
.
If
nothing
is
done
,
it
will
eventually
shut
down
normal
operations
until
appropriate
manual
maintenance
is
done
.
The
remainder
of
this
section
gives
the
details
.
The
new
approach
to
XID
comparison
distinguishes
two
special
XIDs
,
numbers
1
and
2
(
BootstrapXID
and
FrozenXID
)
.
These
two
XIDs
are
always
considered
older
than
every
normal
XID
.
Normal
XIDs
(
those
greater
than
2
)
are
compared
using
modulo
-
2
31
arithmetic
.
This
means
that
for
every
normal
XID
,
there
are
two
billion
XIDs
that
are
"
older
"
and
two
billion
that
are
"
newer
"
;
another
way
to
say
it
is
that
the
normal
XID
space
is
circular
with
no
endpoint
.
Therefore
,
once
a
row
version
has
been
created
with
a
particular
normal
XID
,
the
row
version
will
appear
to
be
"
in
the
past
"
for
the
next
two
billion
transactions
,
no
matter
which
normal
XID
we
are
talking
about
.
If
the
row
version
still
exists
after
more
than
two
billion
transactions
,
it
will
suddenly
appear
to
be
in
the
future
.
To
prevent
data
loss
,
old
row
versions
must
be
reassigned
the
XID
FrozenXID
sometime
before
they
reach
the
two
-
billion
-
transactions
-
old
mark
.
Once
they
are
assigned
this
special
XID
,
they
will
appear
to
be
"
in
the
past
"
to
all
normal
transactions
regardless
of
wraparound
issues
,
and
so
such
row
versions
will
be
good
until
deleted
,
no
matter
how
long
that
is
.
This
reassignment
of
XID
is
handled
by
VACUUM
.
VACUUM
'
s
normal
policy
is
to
reassign
FrozenXID
to
any
row
version
with
a
normal
XID
more
than
one
billion
transactions
in
the
past
.
This
policy
preserves
the
original
insertion
XID
until
it
is
not
likely
to
be
of
interest
anymore
.
(
In
fact
,
most
row
versions
will
probably
live
and
die
without
ever
being
"
frozen
"
.
)
With
this
policy
,
the
maximum
safe
interval
between
VACUUM
runs
on
any
table
is
exactly
one
billion
transactions
:
if
you
wait
longer
,
it
'
s
possible
that
a
row
version
that
was
not
quite
old
enough
to
be
reassigned
last
time
is
now
more
than
two
billion
transactions
old
and
has
wrapped
around
into
the
future
—
i
.
e
.
,
is
lost
to
you
.
(
Of
course
,
it
'
ll
reappear
after
another
two
billion
transactions
,
but
that
'
s
no
help
.
)
Since
periodic
VACUUM
runs
are
needed
anyway
for
the
reasons
described
earlier
,
it
'
s
unlikely
that
any
table
would
not
be
vacuumed
for
as
long
as
a
billion
transactions
.
But
to
help
administrators
ensure
this
constraint
is
met
,
VACUUM
stores
transaction
ID
statistics
in
the
system
table
pg_database
.
In
particular
,
the
datfrozenxid
column
of
a
database
'
s
pg_database
row
is
updated
at
the
completion
of
any
database
-
wide
VACUUM
operation
(
i
.
e
.
,
VACUUM
that
does
not
name
a
specific
table
)
.
The
value
stored
in
this
field
is
the
freeze
cutoff
XID
that
was
used
by
that
VACUUM
command
.
All
normal
XIDs
older
than
this
cutoff
XID
are
guaranteed
to
have
been
replaced
by
FrozenXID
within
that
database
.
A
convenient
way
to
examine
this
information
is
to
execute
the
query
SELECT
datname
,
age
(
datfrozenxid
)
FROM
pg_database
;
The
age
column
measures
the
number
of
transactions
from
the
cutoff
XID
to
the
current
transaction
'
s
XID
.
With
the
standard
freezing
policy
,
the
age
column
will
start
at
one
billion
for
a
freshly
-
vacuumed
database
.
When
the
age
approaches
two
billion
,
the
database
must
be
vacuumed
again
to
avoid
risk
of
wraparound
failures
.
Recommended
practice
is
to
VACUUM
each
database
at
least
once
every
half
-
a
-
billion
(
500
million
)
transactions
,
so
as
to
provide
plenty
of
safety
margin
.
To
help
meet
this
rule
,
each
database
-
wide
VACUUM
automatically
delivers
a
warning
if
there
are
any
pg_database
entries
showing
an
age
of
more
than
1
.
5
billion
transactions
,
for
example
:
play
=
#
VACUUM
;
WARNING
:
database
"
mydb
"
must
be
vacuumed
within
177009986
transactions
HINT
:
To
avoid
a
database
shutdown
,
execute
a
full
-
database
VACUUM
in
"
mydb
"
.
VACUUM
If
the
warnings
emitted
by
VACUUM
go
ignored
,
then
PostgreSQL
will
begin
to
emit
a
warning
like
the
above
on
every
transaction
start
once
there
are
fewer
than
10
million
transactions
left
until
wraparound
.
If
those
warnings
also
are
ignored
,
the
system
will
shut
down
and
refuse
to
execute
any
new
transactions
once
there
are
fewer
than
1
million
transactions
left
until
wraparound
:
play
=
#
select
2
+
2
;
ERROR
:
database
is
shut
down
to
avoid
wraparound
data
loss
in
database
"
mydb
"
HINT
:
Stop
the
postmaster
and
use
a
standalone
backend
to
VACUUM
in
"
mydb
"
.
The
1
-
million
-
transaction
safety
margin
exists
to
let
the
administrator
recover
without
data
loss
,
by
manually
executing
the
required
VACUUM
commands
.
However
,
since
the
system
will
not
execute
commands
once
it
has
gone
into
the
safety
shutdown
mode
,
the
only
way
to
do
this
is
to
stop
the
postmaster
and
use
a
standalone
backend
to
execute
VACUUM
.
The
shutdown
mode
is
not
enforced
by
a
standalone
backend
.
See
the
postgres
reference
page
for
details
about
using
a
standalone
backend
.
VACUUM
with
the
FREEZE
option
uses
a
more
aggressive
freezing
policy
:
row
versions
are
frozen
if
they
are
old
enough
to
be
considered
good
by
all
open
transactions
.
In
particular
,
if
a
VACUUM
FREEZE
is
performed
in
an
otherwise
-
idle
database
,
it
is
guaranteed
that
all
row
versions
in
that
database
will
be
frozen
.
Hence
,
as
long
as
the
database
is
not
modified
in
any
way
,
it
will
not
need
subsequent
vacuuming
to
avoid
transaction
ID
wraparound
problems
.
This
technique
is
used
by
initdb
to
prepare
the
template0
database
.
It
should
also
be
used
to
prepare
any
user
-
created
databases
that
are
to
be
marked
datallowconn
=
false
in
pg_database
,
since
there
isn
'
t
any
convenient
way
to
VACUUM
a
database
that
you
can
'
t
connect
to
.
Warning
A
database
that
is
marked
datallowconn
=
false
in
pg_database
is
assumed
to
be
properly
frozen
;
the
automatic
warnings
and
wraparound
protection
shutdown
do
not
take
such
databases
into
account
.
Therefore
it
'
s
up
to
you
to
ensure
you
'
ve
correctly
frozen
a
database
before
you
mark
it
with
datallowconn
=
false
.
22
.
1
.
4
.
The
auto
-
vacuum
daemon
Beginning
in
PostgreSQL
8
.
1
,
there
is
a
separate
optional
server
process
called
the
autovacuum
daemon
,
whose
purpose
is
to
automate
the
execution
of
VACUUM
and
ANALYZE
commands
.
When
enabled
,
the
autovacuum
daemon
runs
periodically
and
checks
for
tables
that
have
had
a
large
number
of
inserted
,
updated
or
deleted
tuples
.
These
checks
use
the
row
-
level
statistics
collection
facility
;
therefore
,
the
autovacuum
daemon
cannot
be
used
unless
stats_start_collector
and
stats_row_level
are
set
to
true
.
Also
,
it
'
s
important
to
allow
a
slot
for
the
autovacuum
process
when
choosing
the
value
of
superuser_reserved_connections
.
The
autovacuum
daemon
,
when
enabled
,
runs
every
autovacuum_naptime
seconds
and
determines
which
database
to
process
.
Any
database
which
is
close
to
transaction
ID
wraparound
is
immediately
processed
.
In
this
case
,
autovacuum
issues
a
database
-
wide
VACUUM
call
,
or
VACUUM
FREEZE
if
it
'
s
a
template
database
,
and
then
terminates
.
If
no
database
fulfills
this
criterion
,
the
one
that
was
least
recently
processed
by
autovacuum
is
chosen
.
In
this
case
each
table
in
the
selected
database
is
checked
,
and
individual
VACUUM
or
ANALYZE
commands
are
issued
as
needed
.
For
each
table
,
two
conditions
are
used
to
determine
which
operation
(
s
)
to
apply
.
If
the
number
of
obsolete
tuples
since
the
last
VACUUM
exceeds
the
"
vacuum
threshold
"
,
the
table
is
vacuumed
.
The
vacuum
threshold
is
defined
as
:
vacuum
threshold
=
vacuum
base
threshold
+
vacuum
scale
factor
*
number
of
tuples
where
the
vacuum
base
threshold
is
autovacuum_vacuum_threshold
,
the
vacuum
scale
factor
is
autovacuum_vacuum_scale_factor
,
and
the
number
of
tuples
is
pg_class
.
reltuples
.
The
number
of
obsolete
tuples
is
obtained
from
the
statistics
collector
;
it
is
a
semi
-
accurate
count
updated
by
each
UPDATE
and
DELETE
operation
.
(
It
is
only
semi
-
accurate
because
some
information
may
be
lost
under
heavy
load
.
)
For
analyze
,
a
similar
condition
is
used
:
the
threshold
,
defined
as
analyze
threshold
=
analyze
base
threshold
+
analyze
scale
factor
*
number
of
tuples
is
compared
to
the
total
number
of
tuples
inserted
,
updated
,
or
deleted
since
the
last
ANALYZE
.
The
default
thresholds
and
scale
factors
are
taken
from
postgresql
.
conf
,
but
it
is
possible
to
override
them
on
a
table
-
by
-
table
basis
by
making
entries
in
the
system
catalog
pg_autovacuum
.
If
a
pg_autovacuum
row
exists
for
a
particular
table
,
the
settings
it
specifies
are
applied
;
otherwise
the
global
settings
are
used
.
See
Section
17
.
9
for
more
details
on
the
global
settings
.
Besides
the
base
threshold
values
and
scale
factors
,
there
are
three
more
parameters
that
can
be
set
for
each
table
in
pg_autovacuum
.
The
first
,
pg_autovacuum
.
enabled
,
can
be
set
to
false
to
instruct
the
autovacuum
daemon
to
skip
that
particular
table
entirely
.
In
this
case
autovacuum
will
only
touch
the
table
when
it
vacuums
the
entire
database
to
prevent
transaction
ID
wraparound
.
The
other
two
parameters
,
the
vacuum
cost
delay
(
pg_autovacuum
.
vac_cost_delay
)
and
the
vacuum
cost
limit
(
pg_autovacuum
.
vac_cost_limit
)
,
are
used
to
set
table
-
specific
values
for
the
Cost
-
Based
Vacuum
Delay
feature
.
If
any
of
the
values
in
pg_autovacuum
are
set
to
a
negative
number
,
or
if
a
row
is
not
present
at
all
in
pg_autovacuum
for
any
particular
table
,
the
corresponding
values
from
postgresql
.
conf
are
used
.
There
is
not
currently
any
support
for
making
pg_autovacuum
entries
,
except
by
doing
manual
INSERT
s
into
the
catalog
.
This
feature
will
be
improved
in
future
releases
,
and
it
is
likely
that
the
catalog
definition
will
change
.
Caution
The
contents
of
the
pg_autovacuum
system
catalog
are
currently
not
saved
in
database
dumps
created
by
the
tools
pg_dump
and
pg_dumpall
.
If
you
want
to
preserve
them
across
a
dump
/
reload
cycle
,
make
sure
you
dump
the
catalog
manually
.
Young
Adult
Outcome
of
Hyperactive
Children
:
Adaptive
Functioning
in
Major
Life
Activities
Barkley
,
Russell
A
Ph
.
D
.
;
Fischer
,
Mariellen
Ph
.
D
.
;
Smallish
,
Lori
M
.
A
.
;
Fletcher
,
Kenneth
Ph
.
D
.
Journal
of
the
American
Academy
of
Child
&
Adolescent
Psychiatry
.
45
(
2
)
:
192
-
202
,
February
2006
.
Abstract
:
Objective
:
The
authors
report
the
adaptive
functioning
of
hyperactive
and
control
children
in
southeastern
Wisconsin
(
Milwaukee
)
followed
to
young
adulthood
.
Method
:
Interviews
with
participants
concerning
major
life
activities
were
collected
between
1992
and
1996
and
used
along
with
employer
ratings
and
high
school
records
at
the
young
adult
follow
-
up
(
mean
=
20
years
,
range
19
-
25
)
for
this
large
sample
of
hyperactive
(
H
;
n
=
149
)
and
community
control
(
CC
;
n
=
72
)
children
initially
seen
in
1978
-
1980
and
studied
for
at
least
13
years
.
Age
,
duration
of
follow
-
up
,
and
IQ
were
statistically
controlled
as
needed
.
Results
:
The
H
group
had
significantly
lower
educational
performance
and
attainment
,
with
32
%
failing
to
complete
high
school
.
H
group
members
had
been
fired
from
more
jobs
and
manifested
greater
employer
-
rated
attention
-
deficit
/
hyperactivity
disorder
and
oppositional
defiant
disorder
symptoms
and
lower
job
performance
than
the
CC
group
.
Socially
,
the
H
group
had
fewer
close
friends
,
more
trouble
keeping
friends
,
and
more
social
problems
as
rated
by
parents
.
Far
more
H
than
CC
group
members
had
become
parents
(
38
%
versus
4
%
)
and
had
been
treated
for
sexually
transmitted
disease
(
16
%
versus
4
%
)
.
Severity
of
lifetime
conduct
disorder
was
predictive
of
several
of
the
most
salient
outcomes
(
failure
to
graduate
,
earlier
sexual
intercourse
,
early
parenthood
)
whereas
attention
-
deficit
/
hyperactivity
disorder
and
oppositional
defiant
disorder
at
work
were
predictive
of
job
performance
and
risk
of
being
fired
.
Conclusions
:
These
findings
corroborate
prior
research
and
go
further
in
identifying
sexual
activity
and
early
parenthood
as
additional
problematic
domains
of
adaptive
functioning
at
adulthood
.
Worse
Quality
of
Life
for
Children
With
Newly
Diagnosed
Attention
-
Deficit
/
Hyperactivity
Disorder
,
Compared
With
Asthmatic
and
Healthy
Children
Rodrigo
Escobar
,
Cesar
A
.
Soutullo
,
Amaia
Hervas
,
Xavier
Gastaminza
,
Pepa
Polavieja
,
and
Inmaculada
Gilaberte
PEDIATRICS
Vol
.
116
No
.
3
September
2005
,
pp
.
e364
-
e369
Objective
.
To
evaluate
the
quality
of
life
(
QOL
)
of
untreated
children
with
newly
diagnosed
attention
-
deficit
/
hyperactivity
disorder
(
ADHD
)
,
compared
with
asthmatic
and
healthy
children
.
Methods
.
This
prospective
,
case
-
control
study
included
a
group
of
120
children
,
6
to
12
years
of
age
,
with
newly
diagnosed
ADHD
according
to
the
Diagnostic
and
Statistical
Manual
of
Mental
Disorders
,
Fourth
Edition
.
Subjects
were
matched
according
to
age
,
gender
,
and
health
care
area
with
2
control
groups
,
ie
,
93
asthmatic
children
and
120
healthy
children
.
Sociodemographic
characteristics
and
Child
Health
Questionnaire
scores
were
collected
.
Results
.
The
QOL
of
children
with
ADHD
was
rated
worse
than
that
of
asthmatic
or
healthy
children
for
most
Child
Health
Questionnaire
domains
.
The
greatest
differences
were
found
in
behavior
,
social
limitations
attributable
to
physical
problems
,
emotional
impact
on
parents
,
and
family
activities
.
Almost
every
psychosocial
domain
was
more
affected
in
comparison
with
asthmatic
children
and
both
psychosocial
and
physical
domains
in
comparison
with
healthy
children
.
Conclusions
.
ADHD
interferes
with
the
daily
lives
of
children
,
parents
,
and
families
even
more
than
asthma
,
primarily
in
areas
related
to
psychosocial
functioning
,
although
evidence
of
impaired
physical
functioning
also
emerged
.
Delays
in
recognition
,
assessment
,
and
management
of
ADHD
may
affect
negatively
the
QOL
of
those
children
.
What
is
the
prevalence
of
adult
ADHD
?
Results
of
a
population
screen
of
966
adults
Faraone
SV
,
Biederman
J
.
State
University
of
New
York
Upstate
Medical
University
.
faraones
@
upstate
.
edu
.
J
Atten
Disord
.
2005
Nov
;
9
(
2
)
:
384
-
91
.
To
provide
a
better
estimate
of
the
prevalence
of
ADHD
in
adulthood
,
the
authors
complete
a
telephone
survey
of
966
randomly
selected
adults
.
They
compute
two
diagnoses
from
the
survey
data
.
Participants
meeting
Diagnostic
and
Statistical
Manual
of
Mental
Disorders
(
4th
ed
.
)
criteria
for
both
childhood
and
adulthood
are
defined
as
narrow
ADHD
.
Broad
ADHD
adds
to
that
definition
those
meeting
subthreshold
criteria
.
Cronbach
'
s
alpha
is
.
90
for
the
18
DSM
-
IV
symptoms
in
childhood
and
.
88
when
rated
for
current
symptoms
in
adulthood
.
No
one
item
unduly
influences
the
reliability
of
the
total
score
.
The
authors
find
similar
results
in
separate
analysesof
hyperactive
-
impulsive
and
inattentive
symptoms
.
They
estimate
prevalences
of
2
.
9
%
for
Narrow
ADHD
and
16
.
4
%
for
Broad
ADHD
.
Having
ADHD
is
associated
with
lower
levels
of
education
and
employment
status
.
These
findings
suggest
that
adult
ADHD
is
a
common
disorder
associated
with
impaired
functioning
.
Tourette
syndrome
and
other
tic
disorders
in
a
total
population
of
children
:
Clinical
assessment
and
background
.
Khalifa
N
,
von
Knorring
AL
.
Department
of
Neuroscience
,
Child
and
Adolescent
Psychiatry
,
University
Hospital
,
Uppsala
,
Sweden
.
Acta
Paediatr
.
2005
Nov
;
94
(
11
)
:
1608
-
14
.
Aim
:
To
describe
the
symptoms
,
onset
,
heredity
,
pre
-
/
perinatal
events
and
socio
-
economic
status
in
Tourette
syndrome
(
TS
)
and
other
tic
disorders
.
Methods
:
From
a
total
population
of
4479
children
,
25
(
0
.
6
%
)
with
TS
,
58
(
1
.
3
%
)
with
chronic
motor
/
vocal
tics
(
CMVT
)
and
214
(
4
.
8
%
)
with
transient
tics
(
TT
)
in
the
last
year
were
found
.
A
three
-
stage
procedure
was
used
:
tic
screening
,
telephone
interview
and
clinical
assessment
.
The
TS
group
was
compared
with
25
children
with
TT
and
25
controls
without
tics
.
Results
:
The
mean
age
of
the
first
symptoms
of
TS
was
significantly
lower
than
the
onset
of
CMVT
.
All
except
one
with
TS
had
contact
with
medical
services
.
The
tics
of
children
with
TS
were
significantly
more
severe
than
the
tics
of
others
.
Younger
age
of
onset
of
TS
indicated
more
severe
tics
.
Parents
and
siblings
of
children
with
TS
had
an
increased
prevalence
of
tic
disorders
,
obsessive
-
compulsive
behaviour
(
OCD
)
,
attention
-
deficit
/
hyperactivity
disorder
(
ADHD
)
and
depression
.
Eighty
per
cent
had
a
first
-
degree
relative
with
a
psychiatric
disorder
.
A
non
-
significant
increase
with
regards
to
reduced
optimality
score
in
the
pre
-
,
peri
-
or
neonatal
periods
was
found
in
children
with
TS
compared
to
controls
.
No
differences
were
found
concerning
socio
-
economic
status
.
Conclusion
:
Almost
all
children
from
a
total
population
with
TS
have
sought
help
from
medical
services
.
An
increased
prevalence
of
tics
,
OCD
,
depression
or
ADHD
was
found
in
the
parents
/
siblings
of
children
with
TS
,
which
draws
attention
to
the
importance
of
thorough
investigation
of
family
members
.
Time
perception
:
modality
and
duration
effects
in
attention
-
deficit
/
hyperactivity
disorder
(
ADHD
)
Toplak
ME
,
Tannock
R
.
Brain
and
Behaviour
Research
Program
,
Research
Institute
of
The
Hospital
for
Sick
Children
,
Ontario
,
Canada
.
J
Abnorm
Child
Psychol
.
2005
Oct
;
33
(
5
)
:
639
-
54
.
Time
perception
performance
was
systematically
investigated
in
adolescents
with
and
without
attention
-
deficit
/
hyperactivity
disorder
(
ADHD
)
.
Specifically
,
the
effects
of
manipulating
modality
(
auditory
and
visual
)
and
length
of
duration
(
200
and
1000
ms
)
were
examined
.
Forty
-
six
adolescents
with
ADHD
and
44
controls
were
administered
four
duration
discrimination
tasks
and
two
control
tasks
,
and
a
set
of
standardized
measures
.
Participants
with
ADHD
had
higher
thresholds
than
controls
on
all
of
the
duration
discrimination
tasks
,
with
the
largest
effect
size
obtained
on
the
visual
1000
ms
duration
discrimination
task
.
No
group
differences
were
observed
on
the
control
tasks
.
Visual
-
spatial
memory
was
found
to
be
a
significant
predictor
of
visual
and
auditory
duration
discrimination
at
longer
intervals
(
1000
ms
)
in
the
ADHD
sample
,
whereas
auditory
verbal
working
memory
predicted
auditory
discrimination
at
longer
intervals
(
1000
ms
)
in
the
control
sample
.
These
group
differences
suggest
impairments
in
basic
timing
mechanisms
in
ADHD
.
Outros
textos
:
Atualização
de
outubro
de
2006
Atualização
de
setembro
de
2006
-
Parte
2
Atualização
de
setembro
de
2006
Atualização
de
agosto
de
2006
-
Parte
1
Atualização
de
julho
de
2006
Atualização
de
maio
de
2006
Atualização
de
novembro
de
2005
Atualização
de
outubro
de
2005
Laparoscopic
nephrectomy
:
assessment
of
morcellation
versus
intact
specimen
extraction
on
postoperative
status
Hernandez
F
,
Rha
KH
,
Pinto
PA
,
Kim
FJ
,
Klicos
N
,
Chan
TY
,
Kavoussi
LR
,
Jarrett
TW
From
the
Departments
of
Urology
and
Pathology
,
The
Johns
Hopkins
Medical
Institutions
,
Baltimore
,
Maryland
,
USA
J
Urol
.
2003
;
170
:
412
-
5
PURPOSE
:
We
compared
pathological
evaluation
and
postoperative
recovery
in
patients
undergoing
transperitoneal
laparoscopic
nephrectomy
at
our
institution
with
morcellated
vs
intact
specimen
extraction
.
MATERIALS
AND
METHODS
:
A
prospective
evaluation
of
57
consecutive
patients
undergoing
radical
and
simple
transperitoneal
laparoscopic
nephrectomy
was
reviewed
.
One
patient
was
excluded
from
study
due
to
transitional
cell
carcinoma
,
which
was
detected
intraoperatively
.
The
33
morcellated
specimens
were
extracted
at
the
umbilical
port
and
the
23
intact
specimens
were
extracted
through
a
midline
infraumbilical
incision
.
Data
were
obtained
on
narcotic
requirements
,
hospital
stay
,
complications
,
estimated
blood
loss
,
mass
size
based
on
preoperative
imaging
,
specimen
weight
and
extraction
incision
length
.
RESULTS
:
Mean
incision
length
in
the
morcellated
and
intact
specimen
removal
groups
was
1
.
2
and
7
.
1
cm
,
respectively
(
p
<
0
.
001
)
.
No
significant
differences
in
pain
or
recovery
were
noted
between
the
2
groups
.
Two
cases
of
microscopic
invasion
of
the
perinephric
adipose
tissue
in
the
intact
specimen
group
were
up
staged
from
clinical
T1
to
pT3a
disease
.
No
change
in
patient
treatment
was
made
based
on
this
information
.
CONCLUSIONS
:
We
did
not
find
a
significant
difference
in
surgical
time
,
pain
or
hospital
stay
.
Only
incision
length
was
statistically
significant
.
Postoperative
recovery
appeared
to
be
similar
in
these
2
groups
.
With
modern
imaging
modalities
information
on
pathological
stage
did
not
alter
patient
treatment
.
Editorial
Comment
Although
prospective
,
this
study
was
non
-
randomized
.
The
authors
report
that
"
the
decision
to
morcellate
or
perform
intact
extraction
was
based
solely
on
patient
preference
"
.
There
were
some
differences
between
the
groups
,
including
patients
that
were
older
(
mean
age
of
54
.
6
vs
.
61
.
5
years
,
p
=
0
.
03
)
and
larger
(
BMI
of
31
.
7
vs
.
27
.
9
)
in
the
morcellated
group
.
The
mean
operative
time
was
only
11
minutes
longer
in
the
morcellated
group
.
Unfortunately
,
the
authors
did
not
report
the
operative
time
for
extraction
separately
.
It
would
have
been
informative
to
compare
the
operative
time
after
complete
dissection
of
the
kidney
,
to
determine
if
the
longer
extraction
time
in
the
morcellated
group
was
outweighed
by
the
longer
time
to
close
the
incision
in
the
intact
extraction
group
.
Entrapping
a
specimen
in
the
Cook
LapSac
is
a
challenging
task
,
which
the
authors
appropriately
bemoan
in
their
discussion
section
,
and
I
would
think
that
in
most
surgeon
'
s
hands
it
would
take
longer
to
entrap
and
morcellate
a
specimen
than
to
close
the
7
.
1
cm
average
incision
for
intact
extraction
.
That
the
authors
of
this
study
managed
to
perform
morecellation
in
only
11
minutes
longer
than
they
took
to
perform
intact
extraction
,
especially
given
the
greater
BMI
in
the
morcellated
group
,
is
a
testament
to
their
skill
.
The
major
finding
of
this
study
is
the
lack
of
benefit
in
terms
of
patient
convalescence
in
the
morcellation
group
,
despite
the
smaller
incision
.
This
leaves
cosmetics
as
being
the
only
advantage
of
morcellation
.
There
are
a
number
of
potential
advantages
to
intact
extraction
.
With
intact
extraction
,
pathological
staging
is
possible
.
There
is
a
growing
body
of
evidence
,
however
,
that
there
is
little
prognostic
difference
between
clinical
T1
renal
cancers
that
are
confirmed
as
pT1
and
those
that
are
upstaged
to
pT3a
.
In
addition
,
there
is
concern
that
morcellation
might
increase
the
risk
of
port
implantation
.
Fortunately
,
there
have
been
only
3
reported
cases
of
port
site
implantation
of
renal
cell
carcinoma
,
and
2
of
them
occurred
after
inappropriate
blind
morcellation
in
a
plastic
bag
.
My
conclusion
is
that
port
site
implantation
is
not
a
significant
concern
with
renal
cell
carcinoma
and
that
there
is
minimal
benefit
to
the
pathological
staging
provided
by
intact
extraction
.
Given
this
,
and
the
findings
of
this
study
,
the
only
difference
between
intact
extraction
and
morcellation
is
improved
cosmetics
in
the
last
.
As
such
,
I
prefer
morcellation
unless
the
specimen
is
very
large
(
>
750
grams
)
,
in
which
cases
I
use
hand
-
assistance
(
and
therefore
intact
extraction
)
to
simplify
dissection
and
entrapment
.
Dr
.
J
.
Stuart
Wolf
Jr
.
Associate
Professor
of
Urology
University
of
Michigan
Ann
Arbor
,
Michigan
,
USA
Prospective
randomized
comparative
study
of
the
effectiveness
and
safety
of
electrohydraulic
and
electromagnetic
extracorporeal
shock
wave
lithotriptors
Sheir
KZ
,
Madbouly
K
,
Elsobky
E
From
the
Urology
and
Nephrology
Center
,
Mansoura
University
,
Mansoura
,
Egypt
J
Urol
.
2003
;
170
:
389
-
92
PURPOSE
:
We
compared
the
efficacy
of
2
shock
wave
energy
sources
,
electrohydraulic
(
Dornier
MFL
5000
,
Dornier
MedTech
,
Wessling
,
Germany
)
and
electromagnetic
(
DLS
,
Dornier
Lithotriptor
S
,
Dornier
MedTech
)
,
for
the
treatment
of
urinary
calculi
.
MATERIALS
AND
METHODS
:
A
prospective
randomized
study
of
694
patients
with
urinary
stones
was
conducted
during
12
months
to
compare
the
efficacy
of
the
2
machines
.
Entrance
criteria
were
radiopaque
single
or
multiple
stones
at
any
location
within
the
kidney
or
the
ureter
,
25
mm
or
smaller
that
had
not
previously
been
treated
by
any
means
.
Patients
with
congenital
anomalies
were
excluded
from
this
study
with
all
other
contraindications
for
extracorporeal
shock
wave
lithotripsy
.
Following
lithotripsy
a
plain
abdominal
film
and
tomograms
were
done
1
week
after
each
session
to
determine
if
there
were
residual
stones
and
assess
the
need
for
re
-
treatment
.
Patients
were
evaluated
4
weeks
after
lithotripsy
by
plane
abdominal
x
-
ray
and
spiral
computerized
tomography
.
Success
was
defined
as
no
residual
stones
.
Univariate
and
multivariate
statistical
analyses
were
performed
for
different
variables
that
may
have
an
impact
on
the
success
rate
,
including
the
type
of
lithotriptor
.
Comparisons
of
treatment
parameters
,
complications
and
success
rate
for
both
lithotriptors
were
done
.
RESULTS
:
Of
9
variables
examined
with
univariate
analysis
6
had
a
significant
impact
on
the
success
rate
.
Of
these
4
maintained
their
statistical
impact
on
multivariate
analysis
.
These
were
side
,
site
of
the
stones
,
renal
morphology
and
type
of
lithotriptor
.
Treatment
time
was
significantly
shortened
for
DLS
(
54
±
32
.
9
minutes
compared
to
65
.
7
±
44
.
7
for
MFL
,
p
<
0
.
001
)
.
The
re
-
treatment
rate
was
lower
for
DLS
at
34
%
versus
51
.
6
%
for
the
MFL
(
p
<
0
.
001
)
.
The
overall
success
rate
was
85
.
4
%
.
It
was
88
.
5
%
for
DLS
compared
to
82
.
4
%
for
MFL
(
p
=
0
.
03
)
.
No
statistically
significant
difference
between
the
lithotriptors
was
noted
for
ureteral
calculi
(
p
>
0
.
05
)
.
The
success
rate
was
higher
in
the
DLS
group
for
renal
stones
especially
lower
caliceal
and
pyelic
stones
(
p
<
0
.
05
)
.
The
success
rate
was
higher
in
DLS
group
for
stones
10
mm
or
smaller
,
92
.
8
%
versus
85
.
3
%
for
MFL
(
p
=
0
.
03
)
.
The
success
rate
was
comparable
in
both
groups
for
stones
larger
than
10
mm
(
81
.
8
%
for
DLS
versus
77
.
9
%
for
MFL
,
p
>
0
.
05
)
.
No
statistically
significant
difference
was
found
in
the
complication
rate
for
the
groups
.
Steinstrasse
were
noted
in
4
%
of
patients
treated
with
MFL
and
3
%
of
those
treated
with
DLS
.
Subcapsular
hematomas
were
noted
in
2
patients
in
each
group
.
No
procedures
after
extracorporeal
shock
wave
lithotripsy
were
needed
in
either
group
.
CONCLUSIONS
:
The
electromagnetic
lithotriptor
(
Dornier
lithotriptor
S
)
has
significant
clinical
advantages
over
the
electrohydraulic
lithotriptor
(
Dornier
MFL
5000
)
in
terms
of
treatment
time
,
re
-
treatment
rate
and
success
rate
,
although
there
is
no
difference
in
the
complication
rate
.
Editorial
Comment
As
nice
as
it
would
be
to
conclude
that
this
study
provides
definitive
evidence
with
regards
to
one
energy
source
over
another
,
as
the
authors
would
like
us
to
believe
as
suggested
by
their
stress
on
the
energy
source
rather
than
the
particular
lithotriptor
throughout
the
text
,
it
does
not
do
that
.
Other
differences
between
the
lithotriptors
make
this
conclusion
invalid
.
The
focal
zone
is
224
mm
2
in
the
MFL
and
175
mm
2
in
the
DLS
.
The
number
of
shock
wave
delivered
was
not
provided
.
One
might
conclude
reasonably
,
however
,
that
indeed
the
DLS
is
a
better
machine
than
the
MFL
-
primarily
owing
to
the
lower
retreatment
rate
.
Since
the
MFL
is
no
longer
in
production
,
this
information
is
not
all
that
useful
.
One
finding
in
the
study
that
is
very
useful
,
however
,
is
the
minimal
(
0
.
6
%
)
rate
of
hematoma
formation
overall
,
despite
the
use
of
sensitive
CT
scans
for
surveillance
.
Other
studies
have
suggested
that
hematoma
formation
might
be
more
frequent
with
either
machine
,
and
given
the
sensitive
radiographic
assessment
in
this
study
I
find
this
reassuring
.
Dr
.
J
.
Stuart
Wolf
Jr
.
Associate
Professor
of
Urology
University
of
Michigan
Ann
Arbor
,
Michigan
,
USA
©
2006
Sociedade
Brasileira
de
Urologia
Rua
Bambina
,
153
22251
-
050
Rio
de
Janeiro
RJ
Brazil
Tel
.
+
55
21
2539
-
6787
Fax
:
+
55
21
2246
-
4088
Saccadic
movements
using
eye
-
tracking
technology
in
individuals
with
autism
spectrum
disorders
:
pilot
study
Movimentos
sacádicos
de
indivíduos
do
espectro
autista
por
varredura
visual
:
estudo
piloto
Marcos
T
.
Mercadante
;
Elizeu
C
.
Macedo
;
Patrícia
M
.
Baptista
;
Cristiane
S
.
Paula
;
José
S
.
Schwartzman
Pervasive
Developmental
Disorder
Program
,
Mackenzie
Presbyterian
University
,
São
Paulo
SP
,
Brazil
ABSTRACT
OBJECTIVE
:
To
verify
differences
in
the
visual
scanning
strategies
between
pervasive
developmental
disorders
(
PDD
)
and
controls
when
they
are
observing
social
and
non
-
social
pictures
.
METHOD
:
PDD
group
(
PDDG
)
comprised
by
10
non
-
retarded
subjects
(
age
from
4
to
41
)
and
age
-
matched
control
group
(
CG
)
.
Nine
social
pictures
with
human
beings
(
including
two
pictures
of
cat
mask
)
,
and
3
nonsocial
pictures
of
objects
were
presented
for
5
seconds
.
Saccadic
movements
and
fixation
were
recorded
with
equipment
EyeGaze
®
(
LC
Technologies
Inc
.
)
.
RESULTS
:
PDDG
(
mean
=
292
.
73
,
SE
=
67
.
62
)
presented
longer
duration
of
saccadic
movements
for
social
pictures
compared
to
CG
(
mean
=
136
.
06
,
SE
=
14
.
01
)
(
p
=
0
.
04
)
.
The
CG
showed
a
higher
number
of
fixations
in
the
picture
7
(
a
women
using
a
cat
mask
,
with
the
eyes
erased
)
(
CG
:
mean
=
3
.
40
;
PDDG
:
mean
=
1
.
80
;
p
=
0
.
007
)
.
CONCLUSION
:
The
results
suggest
differences
in
strategies
that
PDD
explore
human
picture
.
Moreover
,
these
strategies
seem
not
to
be
affected
by
the
lack
of
expected
part
of
the
face
(
the
eyes
)
.
Key
words
:
autism
,
Aspergers
syndrome
,
pervasive
development
disorder
,
eye
movement
.
RESUMO
OBJETIVO
:
Verificar
diferenças
nas
estratégias
de
varredura
visual
de
indivíduos
com
transtorno
invasivo
do
desenvolvimento
(
TID
)
comparados
a
controles
normais
na
observação
de
figuras
sociais
e
não
sociais
.
MÉTODO
:
Estudo
caso
-
controle
.
Grupo
TID
:
dez
sujeitos
com
TID
,
inteligência
normal
e
idade
entre
4
e
41
anos
;
Grupo
Controle
:
dez
sujeitos
pareados
por
idade
.
Os
sujeitos
observaram
por
5
segundos
9
figuras
de
seres
humanos
e
3
figuras
de
objetos
.
Os
movimentos
sacádicos
e
o
número
de
fixações
foram
gravados
em
equipamento
EyeGaze
®
(
LC
Technologies
Inc
.
)
.
RESULTADOS
:
O
grupo
TID
apresentou
maior
duração
dos
movimentos
sacádicos
na
observação
de
figuras
humanas
[
TID
=
292
,
73
(
EP
=
67
,
62
)
;
controle
=
136
,
06
(
EP
=
14
,
01
)
;
p
=
0
,
04
]
.
O
grupo
controle
apresentou
maior
número
de
fixações
na
figura
7
(
mulher
com
máscara
de
gato
sem
os
olhos
)
(
TID
=
1
,
8
;
controle
=
3
,
4
;
p
=
0
,
007
)
.
CONCLUSÃO
:
Indivíduos
com
TID
parecem
utilizar
estratégias
diferentes
para
explorar
figura
humana
.
Além
disso
,
o
padrão
de
investigação
deles
não
se
modifica
quando
observam
uma
figura
que
rompe
com
o
esperado
(
a
falta
dos
olhos
)
.
Palavras
-
chave
:
autismo
,
síndrome
de
Asperger
,
transtornos
globais
do
desenvolvimento
infantil
,
movimento
ocular
.
Autism
is
a
complex
neurodevelopmental
disorder
affecting
social
,
communication
and
behavior
domains
1
.
Today
,
the
researches
have
shown
that
more
than
a
unique
entity
,
autism
is
a
segment
of
a
broad
spectrum
,
comprising
by
different
pervasive
developmental
disorders
(
PDD
)
2
.
At
least
,
two
major
issues
might
be
underlying
this
field
;
the
search
for
earlier
diagnoses
and
better
endophenotypes
characterization
3
,
4
.
Several
studies
,
based
on
eye
tracking
devices
techniques
,
have
explored
the
differences
between
PDD
and
normal
controls
gaze
strategies
in
observing
human
faces
5
-
12
.
The
majority
of
the
face
perceptions
studies
have
been
focused
on
visual
fixation
patterns
.
These
researches
have
opened
new
pathways
in
developing
new
diagnostic
instruments
and
in
increasing
the
comprehension
of
neurobiological
bases
of
PDD
13
,
14
.
In
this
study
we
introduce
a
new
paradigm
showing
social
(
human
face
,
as
well
altered
face
stimuli
-
we
deleted
the
eyes
in
a
picture
of
a
women
using
a
cat
mask
)
and
non
-
social
(
objects
)
stimulus
.
The
goal
is
to
verify
differences
in
the
visual
scanning
strategies
,
measured
by
the
amount
of
time
spent
doing
saccadic
movements
,
and
the
number
of
fixations
,
between
PDD
and
controls
when
they
are
observing
freely
(
no
-
rules
,
no
task
oriented
)
social
and
non
-
social
pictures
.
We
hypothesize
that
PDD
group
present
more
saccadic
movement
than
controls
,
and
this
difference
is
increased
by
the
observation
of
unexpected
pictures
.
METHOD
Sample
-
A
PDD
group
(
PDDG
)
comprised
by
10
non
-
mental
retardation
males
who
met
DSM
-
IV
criteria
for
PDD
(
age
range
from
4
to
41
years
-
old
)
,
and
an
age
-
matched
control
group
(
CG
)
comprised
by
10
males
without
any
psychiatric
disorder
.
All
participants
were
drug
free
.
The
PDD
diagnoses
were
done
by
two
psychiatrists
with
expertise
in
the
field
.
In
addition
,
the
Autism
Screening
Questionnaire
15
was
applied
to
all
studied
cases
.
Twelve
large
pictures
were
showed
(
full
15
"
computer
screen
)
for
5
seconds
to
all
participants
(
pictures
available
at
request
to
the
correspondent
author
)
.
Six
were
pictures
from
human
being
(
close
of
the
face
or
social
situations
)
,
two
are
pictures
of
a
women
using
a
cat
mask
,
but
in
one
of
them
the
eyes
were
deleted
,
one
is
a
picture
of
four
masks
sculptures
,
and
the
last
three
are
pictures
of
draws
(
a
door
,
a
salt
cellar
,
and
a
dish
with
a
set
of
cutlery
)
.
The
pictures
were
analyzed
considering
two
groups
,
the
group
of
pictures
with
a
human
image
stimulus
,
comprised
by
the
first
nine
pictures
(
social
pictures
)
,
and
the
group
of
pictures
without
human
stimulus
,
comprised
by
the
last
three
pictures
(
non
-
social
pictures
)
.
The
study
was
approved
by
the
ethics
committee
of
Mackenzie
Presbyterian
University
.
All
the
subjects
or
their
parent
were
informed
about
the
procedures
read
and
signed
the
informed
consent
.
Procedure
-
The
subjects
were
sited
in
front
of
a
computer
(
50
cm
from
the
screen
)
with
an
eye
-
tracking
device
,
and
asked
to
watch
.
They
already
knew
that
no
questions
would
be
done
,
and
the
only
task
was
to
watch
some
pictures
.
In
addition
,
they
were
informed
that
there
were
no
rules
,
neither
right
nor
wrong
ways
to
do
the
task
.
The
eye
movements
were
recorded
with
equipment
EyeGaze
®
(
LC
Technologies
Inc
.
)
that
allows
analysis
of
saccadic
movements
(
mean
length
and
duration
)
and
fixation
(
localization
and
duration
)
.
Statistical
analysis
-
Four
parameters
(
mean
length
of
saccadic
movement
,
duration
of
the
saccadic
movement
,
fixation
point
time
,
and
number
of
fixations
)
were
analyzed
.
We
also
analyzed
these
variables
according
five
specific
regions
(
eyes
region
,
mouth
region
,
face
,
out
-
side
of
the
face
and
nose
)
.
The
non
-
social
pictures
were
only
analized
as
the
whole
picture
.
Logarithmic
correction
was
applied
to
normalize
data
distribution
.
The
analysis
of
variance
for
repetitive
measurements
were
applied
.
The
comparisons
were
done
by
Walds
test
.
A
significance
of
.
05
was
considered
.
RESULTS
The
PDDG
was
comprised
by
10
non
-
mental
retardation
males
,
mean
age
of
15
.
9
(
SD
=
10
.
6
)
(
ages
=
4
,
8
,
8
,
13
,
13
,
11
,
19
,
19
,
23
,
41
years
old
)
.
The
CG
was
comprised
by
10
males
without
psychiatric
disorders
,
mean
age
of
16
.
1
(
SD
=
10
.
3
)
(
p
=
0
.
97
)
.
Considering
the
nine
first
pictures
(
social
pictures
)
,
the
amount
of
time
spent
(
in
milliseconds
)
by
PDDG
doing
saccadic
movements
was
greater
than
the
amount
of
time
spent
by
CG
[
PDDG
mean
=
292
.
73
ms
(
SE
=
67
.
62
)
,
CG
mean
=
136
.
06
ms
(
SE
=
14
.
01
)
;
p
=
0
.
04
]
.
No
difference
was
observed
between
groups
in
the
last
three
pictures
(
non
-
social
pictures
)
[
PDDG
mean
=
309
.
56
ms
(
SE
=
122
.
19
)
,
CG
mean
=
247
.
38
ms
(
SE
=
70
.
51
)
;
p
=
0
.
76
]
.
The
PDDG
did
not
show
any
difference
in
the
amount
of
time
spent
doing
saccadic
movement
(
p
=
0
.
54
)
when
it
was
compared
the
nine
first
pictures
(
social
pictures
)
with
the
last
three
(
non
-
social
pictures
)
.
On
the
other
hand
,
the
CG
showed
a
higher
amount
of
time
doing
saccadic
movements
observing
the
non
-
social
pictures
than
they
did
with
the
social
pictures
(
p
=
0
.
02
)
(
Figure
)
.
The
mean
length
of
saccadic
movement
,
the
fixation
point
time
,
and
the
number
of
fixations
did
not
show
any
difference
between
groups
.
Analyzing
picture
6
(
a
woman
with
a
cat
mask
)
and
7
(
the
same
picture
with
the
eyes
deleted
)
the
PDDG
showed
greater
amount
of
time
spent
doing
saccadic
movements
in
both
pictures
compared
to
CG
[
picture
6
:
PDDG
mean
=
320
.
06
ms
(
SE
=
94
.
52
)
,
CG
mean
=
100
.
02
ms
(
SE
=
27
.
17
)
;
picture
7
:
PDDG
mean
=
283
.
39
ms
(
SE
=
82
.
68
)
,
CG
mean
=
141
.
69
ms
(
SE
=
49
.
18
)
(
p
=
0
.
01
)
]
.
The
amount
of
number
of
fixations
did
not
show
any
difference
comparing
the
both
groups
observing
the
region
of
the
eyes
in
the
picture
6
[
PDDG
mean
=
1
.
60
(
SE
=
0
.
34
)
,
CG
mean
=
2
.
40
(
SE
=
0
.
37
)
;
p
=
0
.
18
]
,
but
the
CG
presented
a
greater
number
of
fixations
in
this
region
in
the
picture
7
[
PDDG
mean
=
1
.
80
(
SE
=
0
.
49
)
,
CG
mean
=
3
.
40
(
SE
=
0
.
52
)
;
p
=
0
.
007
]
.
When
it
was
compared
the
number
of
fixations
between
picture
6
and
7
,
the
PDDG
did
not
show
any
difference
(
p
=
0
.
6538
)
,
but
the
CG
tended
to
have
more
fixations
in
this
region
in
the
picture
7
(
p
=
0
.
077
)
.
DISCUSSION
Our
study
showed
that
PDD
patients
spend
more
time
doing
saccadic
movements
than
controls
when
observing
freely
human
pictures
;
at
the
same
time
,
the
controls
spent
more
time
doing
saccadic
movements
observing
the
non
-
social
pictures
than
they
do
when
they
observe
social
pictures
.
In
addition
,
the
PDD
patients
do
not
show
any
difference
in
the
amount
of
time
spent
doing
saccadic
movements
when
they
observe
human
pictures
or
non
human
pictures
(
Figure
)
.
These
results
suggest
that
the
major
difference
between
groups
is
determined
by
the
way
of
the
controls
explore
human
pictures
.
This
study
also
pointed
that
only
the
CG
presented
a
difference
in
the
number
of
fixations
in
observing
the
picture
in
which
the
eyes
were
removed
,
showing
that
the
controls
present
more
fixations
than
the
PDD
group
.
In
normal
controls
,
the
lack
of
something
expected
(
the
eyes
)
seems
to
induce
longer
investigations
,
suggesting
that
the
fail
in
what
should
be
watched
,
changes
the
eye
tracking
strategies
.
To
understand
this
result
we
might
admit
that
normal
controls
would
have
some
presuppositions
underlying
their
gaze
pattern
,
implying
in
complex
cerebral
circuitries
activations
.
If
these
data
were
replicated
in
larger
sample
size
,
there
is
a
clinical
relevance
for
these
findings
,
since
we
might
have
the
eye
-
tracking
technique
as
an
auxiliary
diagnostic
instrument
.
In
addition
,
based
on
these
results
we
can
explore
some
neurobiological
hypotheses
that
have
been
proposed
for
autism
It
has
been
discussed
the
different
neuronal
circuitry
pathways
involved
in
the
reflexive
and
volitional
saccades
16
.
It
seems
that
a
group
of
specialized
neurons
named
V4
neurons
,
present
pre
-
saccadic
activation
.
These
neurons
,
and
their
projections
to
the
parietal
cortex
,
the
frontal
eyes
fields
and
the
superior
collicullus
,
the
areas
would
be
involved
in
the
oculomotor
programming
would
be
regulating
the
visual
scanning
17
.
Focusing
on
autism
,
it
is
important
to
explore
if
the
saccade
abnormality
are
related
to
an
endogenous
pathway
dysfunction
,
or
due
to
the
impairment
in
the
executive
functions
described
in
this
disorder
18
.
In
this
study
,
we
proposed
a
free
(
no
rules
,
no
structure
,
no
questions
)
situation
,
in
which
individuals
had
only
to
watch
some
pictures
.
Within
this
paradigm
we
decreased
the
dependence
of
the
volitional
saccades
(
in
terms
of
task
-
oriented
tests
of
complex
spatial
working
memory
and
executive
control
)
16
.
Based
on
this
,
our
data
would
be
suggesting
that
PDD
present
impairment
in
the
endogenous
pathway
,
since
they
do
more
saccadic
movements
than
the
controls
.
However
,
one
can
argue
that
the
difference
observed
between
two
groups
might
be
due
to
different
strategies
in
visual
scanning
,
meaning
different
executive
functions
patterns
.
This
rationale
seems
to
be
reinforcing
by
the
results
obtained
from
the
exploration
of
the
picture
without
the
eyes
,
when
the
controls
did
more
fixations
,
suggesting
more
complex
circuitries
involvement
.
If
this
is
the
sense
,
it
is
possible
to
consider
that
even
in
freely
observations
normal
controls
apply
visual
scanning
strategies
based
on
presuppositions
.
On
the
other
hand
,
it
seems
that
PDD
do
not
work
under
the
same
rules
,
allow
us
to
formulate
a
metaphor
,
in
which
,
the
normal
control
tend
to
see
the
world
by
the
brain
,
instead
PDD
patients
tend
to
see
the
world
by
the
retina
.
Finally
,
the
current
hypotheses
of
the
cerebellar
and
neocortical
systems
regarding
the
neural
origin
and
cognitive
basis
of
behavioral
abnormalities
in
autism
can
highlighted
some
etiopathological
models
19
.
One
,
tempting
to
hypothesize
would
be
that
due
to
the
lesser
amount
of
time
spent
in
scanning
human
face
,
the
PDD
subjects
might
have
caused
impairment
in
the
circuitries
that
would
be
responsible
in
regulating
the
capture
of
human
images
,
the
association
with
the
social
meaning
of
these
images
,
through
the
circuitries
oculomotor
,
cerebellum
and
amygdale
projections
neurons
20
.
The
limitations
of
this
study
is
the
small
sample
size
,
the
large
range
of
subjects
age
,
as
well
as
the
lack
of
more
complete
neuropsychological
evaluations
.
Interestingly
,
the
older
PDD
subjects
were
those
who
closer
to
normal
controls
performed
the
eye
gaze
.
Based
on
these
data
,
more
studies
with
larger
samples
are
required
in
order
to
explore
the
eye
gaze
technique
in
detecting
earlier
PDD
diagnoses
.
Acknowledgement
-
The
authors
thank
Dr
.
Ami
Klin
for
his
suggestions
.
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A
,
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DV
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patterns
during
viewing
of
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situations
as
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of
social
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in
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Pelphrey
KA
,
Sasson
NJ
,
Reznick
JS
,
Paul
G
,
Goldman
BD
,
Piven
J
.
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scanning
of
faces
in
autism
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J
Autism
Dev
Disord
2002
;
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:
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[
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]
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van
der
Geest
JN
,
Kemner
C
,
Verbaten
MN
,
van
Engeland
H
.
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behavior
of
children
with
pervasive
developmental
disorder
toward
human
faces
:
a
fixation
time
study
.
J
Child
Psychol
Psychiatry
2002
;
43
:
669
-
678
.
[
Medline
]
11
.
Trepagnier
C
,
Sebrechts
MM
,
Peterson
R
.
Atypical
face
gaze
in
autism
.
CyberPsychol
Behavior
2002
;
5
:
213
-
217
.
12
.
Dalton
KM
,
Nacewicz
BM
,
Johnstone
T
,
et
al
.
Gaze
fixation
and
the
neural
circuitry
of
face
processing
in
autism
.
Nature
Neurosci
2005
;
8
:
519
-
526
13
.
Dawson
G
,
Webb
SJ
,
McPartland
J
.
Understanding
the
nature
of
face
processing
impairment
in
autism
:
insights
from
behavioral
and
electrophysiological
studies
.
Develop
Neuropsychol
2005
;
27
:
403
-
424
.
14
.
Stokstad
E
.
New
hints
into
the
biological
basis
of
autism
.
Science
2001
;
294
:
34
-
37
.
[
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]
15
.
Berument
SK
,
Rutter
M
,
Lord
C
,
Pickles
A
,
Bailey
A
.
Autism
screening
questionnaire
:
diagnostic
validity
.
Br
J
Psychiatry
1999
;
175
:
444
-
451
.
[
Medline
]
16
.
Minshew
NJ
,
Luna
B
,
Sweeney
JA
.
Oculomotor
evidence
for
neocortical
systems
but
not
cerebellar
dysfunction
in
autism
.
Neurology
1999
;
52
:
917
-
922
.
[
Medline
]
17
.
Moore
T
.
Shape
representations
and
visual
guidance
of
saccadic
eye
movements
.
Science
1999
;
285
:
1914
-
1917
.
[
Medline
]
18
.
Hill
EL
,
Frith
U
.
Understanding
autism
:
insights
from
mind
and
brain
.
PhilosPhilosophical
Transactions
of
the
Royal
Society
of
London
.
Series
B
,
Biological
Sciences
2003
;
358
:
281
-
289
.
19
.
Courchesne
E
,
Pierce
K
.
Why
the
frontal
cortex
in
autism
might
be
talking
only
to
itself
:
local
over
-
connectivity
but
long
-
distance
disconnection
.
Cur
Op
Neurobiol
2005
;
15
:
225
-
230
.
20
.
Wang
X
,
Jin
J
,
Jabri
M
.
Neural
network
models
for
the
gaze
shift
system
in
the
superior
collicullus
and
cerebellum
.
Neural
Networks
2002
;
15
:
811
-
832
.
[
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]
Received
9
December
2005
,
received
in
final
form
9
March
2006
.
Accepted
26
April
2006
.
This
study
was
in
part
supported
by
MackPesquisa
.
Dr
.
Marcos
T
.
Mercadante
-
Rua
da
Consolação
896
/
62
-
01302
-
907
São
Paulo
SP
-
Brasil
.
E
-
mail
:
mercadante
@
mackenzie
.
br
©
2006
Associação
Arquivos
de
Neuro
-
Psiquiatria
Pça
.
Amadeu
Amaral
,
47
cj
.
33
01327
-
010
São
Paulo
SP
Brazil
Tel
.
:
+
55
11
287
-
6600
Fax
:
+
55
11
289
-
8879
Videoendoscopic
surgery
by
extraperitoneal
access
:
technical
aspects
and
indication
M
.
Tobias
-
Machado
;
Roberto
V
.
Juliano
;
Heloisa
A
.
Gaspar
;
Ricardo
P
.
Rocha
;
Milton
Borrelli
;
Eric
R
.
Wroclawski
Discipline
of
Urology
,
ABC
School
of
Medicine
(
FMABC
)
,
Santo
André
,
São
Paulo
,
Brazil
Correspondence
ABSTRACT
Laparoscopic
surgery
in
urology
is
definitely
incorporated
to
the
techniques
of
minimally
invasive
treatment
for
urogenital
diseases
.
Though
the
classic
access
to
organs
in
the
urinary
tract
is
extraperitoneal
,
this
access
has
not
been
prioritized
when
the
videoendoscopic
technique
is
used
.
In
Brazil
,
few
groups
use
this
approach
and
little
has
been
discussed
about
its
true
practical
applicability
.
The
authors
intended
to
discuss
the
main
technical
aspects
and
criteria
for
indication
,
reported
though
the
improvement
achieved
in
a
5
-
year
period
with
150
operated
cases
.
A
review
of
the
literature
shows
that
the
worldly
acceptance
of
the
extraperitoneal
endoscopic
approach
is
increasing
.
Nevertheless
,
there
are
no
evidences
that
the
extraperitoneal
access
is
superior
to
the
transperitoneal
route
.
Thus
,
the
choice
depends
basically
on
the
surgeon
'
s
preference
.
Major
advantages
are
the
immediate
access
to
the
renal
hilum
and
isolation
of
peritoneal
structures
.
Employing
this
access
is
useful
when
one
suspects
that
significant
peritoneal
adherences
could
prevent
the
surgical
act
or
when
one
wishes
to
preserve
the
integrity
of
the
peritoneal
cavity
.
Key
words
:
video
-
assisted
surgery
;
laparoscopic
surgery
;
retroperitoneal
space
INTRODUCTION
Ablative
laparoscopic
surgery
in
urology
is
widely
accepted
in
selected
situations
because
it
presents
well
defined
advantages
in
relation
to
open
surgery
,
such
as
earlier
return
to
routine
activities
,
reduction
in
the
hospitalization
,
decreased
blood
loss
and
reduction
in
analgesic
use
post
-
operatively
,
in
addition
to
superior
esthetic
result
(
1
,
2
)
.
Extraperitoneal
access
is
the
preferential
route
in
cases
of
open
urologic
surgery
because
it
provides
a
direct
approach
to
the
organs
of
the
urinary
system
,
without
the
need
of
manipulating
the
bowel
,
with
a
lower
possibility
of
paralytic
ileus
and
with
drainage
of
the
open
urinary
tract
without
contact
with
the
peritoneal
cavity
.
Despite
these
features
,
few
specialized
centers
have
prioritized
the
retroperitoneal
approach
when
videoendoscopic
access
is
employed
.
Most
authors
give
preference
to
the
transperitoneal
route
due
to
the
"
larger
working
space
"
and
greater
facility
in
viewing
anatomical
structures
,
what
would
result
in
a
lower
learning
curve
,
especially
for
those
who
are
initiating
in
laparoscopy
(
1
,
3
)
.
The
first
report
of
therapeutic
retroperitoneoscopic
access
in
urology
dates
from
1978
,
when
Wickham
(
4
)
performed
the
extraction
of
a
proximal
ureteral
stone
.
However
,
proper
standardization
and
popularization
of
the
technique
were
established
by
Gaur
in
1992
,
with
the
development
of
the
atraumatic
balloon
for
retroperitoneum
expansion
(
5
)
.
Since
then
,
some
groups
in
the
United
States
,
France
,
Germany
and
Japan
have
published
their
results
relative
to
this
technique
(
6
-
8
)
.
In
our
setting
,
we
have
used
,
preferably
,
this
access
,
since
1997
,
in
the
treatment
of
several
urologic
diseases
(
3
)
.
We
intended
to
describe
the
technical
aspects
and
main
advantages
and
disadvantages
of
this
minimally
invasive
access
,
comparing
them
to
data
in
the
literature
.
SURGICAL
TECHNIQUE
AND
STRATEGY
General
Checking
of
Material
The
material
required
for
surgery
is
the
same
used
for
conventional
laparoscopic
surgery
,
added
by
some
details
that
are
inherent
to
each
particular
surgical
procedure
.
Disposition
in
the
Surgical
Room
In
lumbar
access
,
the
surgeon
operates
the
patient
in
a
position
similar
to
open
surgery
,
that
is
,
posterior
.
Due
to
the
lateral
position
of
the
patient
in
the
surgical
table
and
the
long
length
of
the
laparoscopic
material
,
we
recommend
that
the
surgeon
,
for
better
comfort
,
be
positioned
over
an
estrade
.
The
camera
stands
beside
the
surgeon
with
the
assistant
and
the
instrumental
table
,
at
the
contralateral
side
(
Figure
-
1
)
.
The
positioning
of
the
surgical
team
for
pelvic
surgery
is
the
same
described
for
transperitoneal
laparoscopic
surgery
(
Figure
-
2
)
.
Lumbar
Surgery
Position
of
the
Patient
The
patient
is
placed
in
lateral
decubitus
,
opposed
to
the
side
intended
for
surgery
,
the
table
is
flexed
in
order
to
raise
the
flank
area
and
to
enlarge
the
space
between
the
iliac
crest
and
the
costal
border
.
The
patient
is
fixed
in
this
position
and
the
extremities
are
arranged
in
order
to
avoid
or
minimize
neuromuscular
sequelae
.
Access
to
the
Retroperitoneum
-
The
retroperitoneal
cavity
must
to
be
created
in
order
to
position
the
trocars
and
develop
the
surgical
procedure
.
Initially
a
transverse
incision
is
performed
by
1
.
5
cm
planes
,
below
the
extremity
of
the
12
th
rib
the
thoracolumbalis
fascia
is
opened
,
reaching
the
retroperitoneal
space
.
A
careful
digital
dissection
is
performed
in
the
anterior
,
postero
-
superior
and
inferior
directions
,
promoting
the
separation
between
the
psoas
muscle
posteriorly
and
the
Gerota
'
s
fascia
anteriorly
(
9
)
.
It
is
important
to
ensure
that
all
entrance
ports
are
largely
free
of
adherences
,
so
that
punctures
can
be
performed
under
direct
viewing
,
without
lesion
of
adjacent
organs
.
Introduction
of
the
Atraumatic
Balloon
There
is
some
controversy
in
the
literature
relative
to
the
need
of
using
a
balloon
for
retroperitoneum
dilatation
.
There
are
commercially
available
products
,
such
as
the
balloon
trocar
,
that
make
this
access
easier
,
where
the
space
can
be
created
under
optical
viewing
inside
the
balloon
,
monitoring
the
dissection
.
In
order
to
optimize
costs
,
some
authors
have
adapted
expansion
systems
with
lower
cost
materials
(
8
,
10
-
12
)
.
We
have
used
a
balloon
made
through
a
double
glove
finger
(
placing
one
finger
inside
the
other
so
to
obtain
greater
resistance
against
rupture
)
,
tied
with
a
cotton
thread
to
a
18F
urethral
catheter
,
where
we
inject
physiologic
saline
solution
.
This
device
allows
a
500
-
1000
mL
capacity
,
depending
on
the
procedure
to
be
performed
(
Figure
-
3
)
.
In
procedures
where
we
intend
to
approach
the
middle
/
distal
ureter
(
especially
nephroureterectomies
)
,
we
use
the
2
balloons
technique
previously
described
by
Gill
et
al
.
(
13
)
.
Initially
,
as
preconized
by
Gaur
,
we
left
the
balloon
inflated
for
10
minutes
,
with
the
objective
of
performing
the
hemostasis
of
small
vessels
.
Based
on
the
experience
of
certain
groups
that
perform
only
the
digital
technique
,
we
started
to
remove
the
balloon
immediately
after
its
expansion
and
we
did
not
observe
bleeding
or
any
difference
in
the
quality
of
the
images
obtained
.
Creation
of
Pneumoretroperitoneum
-
A
Hasson
trocar
(
10
-
12
mm
)
is
introduced
under
direct
viewing
into
the
incision
and
fixed
with
2
-
0
cotton
sutures
,
in
order
to
avoid
escape
of
air
(
Figure
-
4
)
.
There
are
special
devices
such
as
the
threaded
trocar
(
Figure
-
4B
)
or
with
inflatable
balloon
(
Figure
-
5
)
that
allow
an
excellent
sealing
,
however
with
higher
costs
.
When
a
Hasson
trocar
is
not
available
,
it
is
possible
to
employ
muscular
purse
-
string
suture
and
a
common
trocar
for
such
function
.
The
retroperitoneum
is
insufflated
with
carbon
dioxide
through
this
trocar
until
a
pressure
of
15
mmHg
is
reached
.
A
laparoscope
of
0
°
or
30
°
is
introduced
into
this
port
,
enabling
the
viewing
of
the
musculature
posteriorly
,
and
the
Gerota
'
s
fascia
and
peritoneum
anteriorly
(
Figure
-
6
)
.
We
have
worked
with
a
0
°
optics
.
The
30
°
optics
can
be
especially
useful
during
the
dissection
of
the
kidney
'
s
superior
pole
and
adrenal
glands
,
which
are
places
located
deeper
and
with
difficult
access
under
linear
viewing
.
Secondary
Ports
All
of
them
are
introduced
under
direct
viewing
with
the
aid
of
optics
.
The
second
port
(
10
mm
)
is
positioned
2
cm
above
the
iliac
crest
,
through
the
floor
of
the
inferior
lumbar
triangle
(
Petit
)
.
Some
authors
prefer
to
start
the
retroperitoneal
access
at
this
point
.
Next
,
the
optics
is
transferred
to
this
port
.
The
third
port
(
5
mm
)
is
placed
1
.
5
cm
inferior
and
lateral
to
the
angle
formed
between
the
lower
edge
of
the
12
th
rib
and
the
paravertebral
muscles
,
making
sure
that
it
penetrates
above
the
subcostal
nerve
.
This
port
and
the
access
port
are
used
by
the
surgeon
.
The
fourth
port
(
5
mm
)
is
manipulated
by
the
assistant
in
order
to
separate
the
structures
and
must
be
introduced
below
the
extremity
of
the
11
th
rib
or
in
medial
position
in
the
anterior
axillary
line
so
that
it
does
nor
perforate
the
peritoneum
(
Figure
-
7
)
(
14
)
.
Slight
variations
are
required
according
to
the
procedure
.
For
adrenal
surgery
,
punctures
are
made
at
a
1
-
2
cm
more
anterior
position
,
to
make
the
access
to
the
gland
easier
,
especially
the
most
posterior
trocar
,
which
could
present
difficulty
during
the
approach
in
a
conventional
position
due
to
the
distance
and
the
limitation
in
the
forceps
length
.
The
same
access
is
useful
when
one
intends
to
perform
sutures
,
allowing
a
better
approach
angle
to
the
renal
pelvis
(
pyeloplasty
and
pyelolithotomy
)
.
In
such
cases
a
slight
lateral
decubitus
to
the
surgeon
side
is
necessary
in
order
to
promote
better
comfort
.
Still
on
access
variations
,
it
can
be
useful
to
replace
the
assistant
'
s
5
mm
trocar
by
a
10
mm
trocar
in
cases
there
it
is
necessary
to
separate
more
widely
the
peritoneum
(
giving
access
to
a
liver
retractor
)
,
such
as
in
adrenal
surgeries
or
when
a
peritoneal
perforation
occurs
,
rendering
the
procedure
difficult
.
When
the
surgeon
intends
to
perform
a
nephroureterectomy
,
the
port
of
the
Petit
'
s
triangle
is
placed
in
a
more
anterior
position
,
so
that
it
enables
a
better
distal
view
of
the
ureter
,
and
the
surgeon
can
perform
urethral
dissection
moving
to
the
other
side
and
using
a
more
medial
and
more
inferior
puncture
,
with
the
optics
being
transferred
to
superior
median
puncture
.
In
this
situation
,
the
change
in
the
spatial
orientation
requires
the
monitor
to
be
transferred
to
the
patient
'
s
lower
region
.
Pelvic
Surgery
Position
of
the
Patient
The
patient
is
placed
in
semi
-
gynecologic
position
with
a
Foley
'
s
catheter
draining
the
bladder
.
We
prefer
using
a
wooden
plate
in
the
shape
of
an
inverted
"
Y
"
,
but
it
is
possible
to
adapt
the
position
in
a
table
with
stirrups
.
When
the
approach
over
the
bladder
or
the
urethra
is
nor
necessary
(
lymphadenectomy
)
,
the
patient
can
be
placed
in
supine
position
.
Approach
to
the
Pre
-
Peritoneal
Region
A
1
.
5
cm
arcuate
incision
in
the
umbilicus
or
a
vertical
intra
-
umbilical
incision
is
made
.
The
dissection
is
performed
in
the
subcutaneous
tissue
and
the
aponeurosis
,
promoting
its
transverse
opening
,
close
to
the
linea
alba
.
It
is
possible
to
view
the
Douglas
'
arcuate
line
posteriorly
and
the
borders
of
the
abdominal
rectus
muscle
laterally
.
The
medial
region
of
the
abdominal
rectus
muscle
is
digitally
dissected
towards
the
Retzius
'
space
and
until
the
pubic
symphysis
,
moving
the
peritoneum
posteriorly
.
Similar
to
the
lumbar
access
,
all
the
potential
entrance
sites
for
the
trocar
must
be
released
from
the
peritoneum
,
in
order
to
avoid
its
perforation
.
Sites
that
are
more
difficult
to
dissect
are
the
lateral
regions
of
hypogastrium
(
lateral
insertion
of
the
Douglas
'
ligament
)
.
Differently
from
the
transperitoneal
access
,
a
largely
exaggerated
Trendelemburg
position
is
not
necessary
,
since
the
intact
peritoneum
provides
support
to
the
bowel
,
a
fact
that
can
promote
anesthetic
advantages
resulting
from
a
smaller
cephalic
slope
.
Introduction
of
the
Atraumatic
Balloon
The
dilating
balloon
is
positioned
in
the
Retzius
'
space
and
insufflated
with
800
-
1000
mL
of
saline
solution
distending
the
extraperitoneal
region
.
For
procedures
where
we
don
not
need
a
larger
dissection
of
the
median
plane
(
lymphadenectomy
or
Burch
surgery
)
,
we
idealized
a
balloon
with
2
simultaneous
glove
fingers
that
would
have
the
advantage
of
expanding
more
efficaciously
the
lateral
regions
(
sites
with
a
more
difficult
access
to
digital
dissection
)
(
Figure
-
4
)
.
Creation
of
Pneumoretroperitoneum
Performed
similarly
to
the
lumbar
access
.
Upon
verifying
the
created
space
,
it
is
possible
to
view
the
bladder
,
the
pubic
symphysis
and
eventually
the
iliac
vessels
(
Figure
-
8
)
.
Secondary
Ports
The
number
and
position
of
ports
depend
on
the
surgical
procedure
to
be
performed
(
Figure
-
9
)
.
A
10
mm
trocar
positioned
on
the
median
line
2
cm
above
the
pubic
symphysis
can
be
used
for
the
surgeon
'
s
work
,
jointly
with
a
forceps
that
is
introduced
in
the
5
mm
trocar
,
2
cm
superior
and
medial
to
the
antero
-
superior
iliac
spine
,
opposite
to
the
side
that
will
be
approached
.
We
prefer
this
conformation
for
pelvic
lymphadenectomy
.
Some
procedures
can
be
performed
with
only
3
ports
(
2
in
iliac
fossae
for
the
surgeon
)
,
as
in
Burch
'
s
surgery
.
Complex
procedures
such
as
radical
prostatectomy
require
5
ports
,
2
of
them
placed
between
the
optics
and
the
punctures
in
iliac
fossa
(
suited
for
dissection
and
sutures
)
.
COMMENTS
Extraperitoneal
access
represents
the
preferential
approach
in
conventional
urologic
surgeries
(
13
,
15
,
16
)
.
However
,
the
initial
application
of
extraperitoneal
videoendoscopic
surgery
presents
greater
technical
difficulty
,
mainly
due
to
a
smaller
working
space
,
lower
lightning
and
the
spatial
orientation
,
which
are
responsible
for
a
larger
learning
curve
(
6
-
8
)
.
The
issue
of
working
space
is
relative
and
directly
associated
with
a
good
peritoneal
detachment
and
proper
installation
of
the
ports
,
being
feasible
even
in
children
(
17
,
18
)
.
Concerning
the
spatial
orientation
,
the
optics
must
be
always
kept
in
a
position
where
it
is
possible
to
observe
the
posterior
muscles
in
horizontal
position
,
thus
allowing
anatomical
parameters
to
be
identified
.
In
our
Service
,
where
150
retroperitoneoscopic
procedures
were
performed
up
to
now
,
we
did
not
observe
a
greater
difference
in
the
technical
adaptation
for
this
approach
,
when
compared
with
the
transperitoneal
route
.
We
believe
that
the
expansion
of
the
extraperitoneal
space
with
the
aid
of
the
atraumatic
balloon
either
hand
-
made
,
industrialized
,
direct
viewing
-
guided
or
not
is
recommendable
since
it
enlarges
the
surgical
field
in
areas
that
cannot
be
reached
by
the
finger
,
reducing
the
need
of
forceps
dissection
(
3
,
14
,
17
)
.
The
use
of
the
balloon
trocar
has
the
advantage
of
allowing
the
visualization
of
structures
,
especially
the
renal
pedicle
,
during
the
expansion
.
Most
authors
do
not
believe
that
the
location
of
the
dilating
balloon
inside
Gerota
'
s
fascia
is
essential
,
as
it
was
originally
described
by
Gaur
(
5
)
.
The
creation
of
the
pneumoretroperitoneum
is
similar
to
the
one
performed
in
the
transperitoneal
access
,
including
the
recommended
pressure
of
15
mmHg
.
There
is
controversy
about
the
repercussions
caused
by
the
pneumoretroperitoneum
when
compared
with
pneumoperitoneum
.
Some
works
initially
proposed
the
occurrence
of
a
higher
absorption
of
CO
2
in
pneumoretroperitoneum
.
Currently
,
it
is
believed
that
hypercapnia
produced
by
CO
2
insufflation
does
not
differ
between
transperitoneal
and
retroperitoneal
accesses
,
with
rates
around
5
-
10
%
,
and
rarely
with
the
appearance
of
clinical
manifestations
(
8
,
19
)
.
There
are
also
reports
of
a
higher
index
of
pneumothorax
with
the
extraperitoneal
lumbar
access
resulting
of
pleural
perforations
promoted
by
dissection
close
to
the
pleura
or
by
the
higher
diffusion
of
gas
to
the
pleural
space
.
Wolf
et
al
.
documented
an
incidence
of
pneumothorax
/
pneumomediastinum
of
41
%
with
no
clinical
repercussions
,
in
patients
submitted
to
extraperitoneal
laparoscopy
(
19
)
.
Gill
et
al
.
observed
the
occurrence
of
pneumothorax
and
pneumomediastinum
in
0
.
6
%
and
0
.
4
%
,
respectively
.
Nevertheless
,
they
stress
that
the
post
-
operative
radiological
control
was
not
routinely
performed
in
all
patients
,
and
those
values
could
be
underestimated
due
to
undiagnosed
subclinical
cases
(
8
)
.
The
permanent
surgical
material
used
in
retroperitoneoscopy
is
similar
to
that
used
in
conventional
laparoscopy
,
except
for
the
Hasson
trocar
,
which
eventually
can
be
replaced
by
a
common
10
mm
trocar
fixed
to
the
aponeurosis
by
a
"
purse
-
string
"
suture
.
Excess
or
improper
location
of
trocars
can
promote
a
collision
between
the
forceps
,
a
fact
known
as
"
trocars
conflict
"
,
responsible
also
for
a
greater
difficulty
in
suture
.
Due
to
these
issues
,
few
series
report
reconstructive
procedures
through
extraperitoneal
access
(
3
,
7
,
20
)
.
Inadvertent
peritoneal
opening
,
with
resulting
pneumoperitoneum
,
can
increase
the
grade
of
technical
difficulty
.
It
is
more
pronounced
during
pelvic
surgeries
,
since
in
lumbar
surgeries
the
lateral
position
displaces
the
bowel
medially
(
8
)
.
When
it
is
not
possible
to
proceed
with
the
surgery
,
a
transperitoneal
puncture
can
be
made
for
escape
of
air
,
as
well
as
the
conversion
to
transperitoneal
laparoscopic
technique
or
,
as
the
last
option
,
conversion
to
open
technique
.
The
bagging
of
organs
in
the
extraperitoneal
space
can
also
be
more
laborious
,
especially
when
industrialized
bags
with
a
rigid
entrance
hole
are
not
available
.
Some
authors
,
in
more
difficult
cases
,
suggest
the
opening
of
the
peritoneum
at
the
end
of
the
procedure
in
order
to
increase
the
space
,
making
the
maneuver
easier
(
6
)
.
We
have
not
used
this
maneuver
routinely
,
since
it
is
usually
possible
to
handle
the
specimen
in
the
retroperitoneal
space
.
When
the
specimen
is
too
large
and
requires
the
enlargement
of
one
of
the
ports
,
we
enlarge
the
incision
and
introduce
the
bag
in
the
retroperitoneum
under
viewing
,
favoring
the
introduction
of
the
specimen
in
the
surgical
bag
as
well
.
There
are
some
factors
that
can
hamper
or
prevent
the
use
of
extraperitoneal
access
.
The
presence
of
obesity
,
which
results
in
a
higher
amount
of
retroperitoneal
fat
,
is
a
factor
of
increasing
difficulty
for
identifying
structures
of
the
renal
pedicle
and
adrenal
gland
.
Despite
the
surgical
time
getting
longer
and
the
surgery
being
a
lot
more
laborious
,
the
benefits
for
this
group
of
patients
are
indisputable
.
Conditions
where
there
is
no
capacity
for
creating
a
space
between
the
kidney
and
the
abdominal
musculature
,
such
as
previous
retroperitoneal
surgery
,
severe
renal
inflammation
and
the
presence
of
very
large
kidneys
,
are
relative
contra
-
indications
.
In
such
situations
it
is
possible
to
try
to
create
the
space
and
,
in
case
of
impossibility
,
the
access
port
is
used
as
an
adjunct
in
the
transperitoneal
approach
.
We
must
also
remind
that
in
such
cases
,
surgical
difficulties
will
be
found
in
the
transperitoneal
access
as
well
,
however
with
a
larger
space
for
work
.
Hemal
et
al
.
(
12
)
reported
the
use
of
laparoscopic
nephrectomy
in
18
patients
with
large
hydronephrosis
(
over
1
,
000
mL
in
volume
,
which
surpassed
the
middle
line
or
extended
themselves
by
more
than
five
vertebral
spaces
)
,
being
12
by
retroperitoneal
route
.
Hobart
et
al
.
also
presented
their
favorable
experience
with
bilateral
extraperitoneal
nephrectomy
for
polycystic
kidneys
(
21
)
.
Contrary
to
most
laparoscopists
,
both
works
preconize
the
extraperitoneal
access
as
a
choice
in
the
management
of
kidneys
with
large
dimensions
.
Hemal
et
al
.
showed
also
a
large
experience
in
the
treatment
of
renal
inflammatory
pathologies
(
including
pyonephrosis
and
tuberculosis
)
,
demonstrating
that
it
is
possible
to
use
the
extraperitoneal
approach
even
when
local
inflammation
is
predicted
(
11
)
.
CONCLUSION
The
choice
of
access
is
fundamentally
based
in
the
surgeon
'
s
preference
and
in
particularities
in
each
case
.
The
assumed
difficulties
that
occur
with
the
extraperitoneal
access
can
be
resolved
if
a
rigorous
technical
standardization
is
achieved
.
Considering
the
advantages
and
limitations
previously
discussed
,
we
use
the
extraperitoneal
approach
as
the
choice
access
in
the
majority
of
laparoscopic
procedures
in
urology
.
We
believe
that
even
for
surgeons
who
prefer
the
transperitoneal
access
,
knowing
the
extraperitoneal
access
is
useful
,
since
it
can
be
needed
in
patients
with
antecedents
of
major
abdominal
surgery
or
previous
peritonitis
,
situations
where
intraperitoneal
adhesions
can
hinder
the
transperitoneal
surgery
.
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JEA
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IS
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MG
,
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GT
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Klein
EA
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AC
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nephrectomy
:
the
Cleveland
Clinic
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2000
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Gill
IS
,
Rassweiler
JJ
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renal
surgery
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our
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Urology
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734
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8
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Gill
IS
,
Clayman
RV
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DM
,
Aso
Y
,
Chiu
AW
,
Das
S
,
et
al
.
:
Retroperitoneal
and
pelvic
extraperitoneal
laparoscopy
:
an
international
perspective
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Urology
.
1998
;
52
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566
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71
.
9
.
Tobias
-
Machado
M
,
Pinto
MA
,
Juliano
RV
,
Cintra
CC
,
Wroclawski
ER
:
Retroperitoneoscopic
renal
biopsy
.
Int
Braz
J
Urol
.
2002
;
28
:
192
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6
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10
.
Suzuki
K
:
Laparoscopic
adrenalectomy
:
retroperitoneal
approach
.
Urol
Clin
North
Am
.
2001
;
28
:
85
-
95
.
11
.
Hemal
AK
,
Gupta
NP
,
Wadhwa
AG
,
Kumar
R
:
Retroperitoneoscopic
nephrectomy
and
nephroureterectomy
for
benign
nonfunctioning
kidneys
:
a
single
-
center
experience
.
Urology
.
2001
;
57
:
644
-
9
.
12
.
Hemal
AK
,
Wadhwa
SN
,
Kumar
M
,
Gupta
NP
:
Transperitoneal
and
retroperitoneal
laparoscopic
nephrectomy
for
giant
hydronephrosis
.
J
Urol
.
1999
;
162
:
35
-
9
.
13
.
Gill
IS
,
Munch
LC
,
Lucas
BA
:
Initial
experience
with
retroperitoneoscopic
nephroureterctomy
:
use
of
a
double
-
ballon
technique
.
Urology
.
1995
;
46
:
747
-
50
.
14
.
Tobias
-
Machado
M
,
Pinto
MA
,
Juliano
RV
,
Mattos
MHE
,
Wroclawski
ER
:
Alternatives
for
distal
ureter
resection
in
laparoscopic
nephroureterectomy
.
Int
Braz
J
Urol
.
2002
;
28
:
109
-
15
.
15
.
Gill
IS
,
Grune
MT
,
Munch
LC
:
Access
technique
for
retroperitoneoscopy
.
J
Urol
.
1996
;
156
:
1120
-
4
.
16
.
Tobias
-
Machado
M
,
Pinto
MA
,
Juliano
RV
,
Borrelli
M
,
Wroclawski
ER
:
Preliminary
results
of
ureteral
intussuception
in
exclusive
retroperitoneoscopic
nephroureterectomy
.
Acta
Esp
Urol
.
2002
;
55
:
582
-
6
.
17
.
Tobias
-
Machado
M
,
Cartum
J
,
Santos
-
Machado
TM
,
Gaspar
HA
,
Simões
AS
,
Cruz
R
:
Retroperitoneoscopic
adrenalectomy
in
an
infant
with
adrenocortical
virilizing
tumor
.
São
Paulo
Med
J
.
2002
;
120
:
87
-
9
.
18
.
Matin
SF
,
Gill
IS
:
Laparoscopic
radical
nephrectomy
:
retroperitoneal
versus
transperitoneal
approach
.
Curr
Urol
Rep
.
2002
;
3
:
164
-
71
.
19
.
Wolf
JS
Jr
,
Monk
TG
,
McDougall
EM
,
McClennan
BL
,
Clayman
RV
:
The
extraperitoneal
approach
and
subcutaneous
emphysema
are
associated
with
greater
absorption
of
carbon
dioxide
during
laparoscopic
renal
surgery
.
J
Urol
.
1995
;
154
:
959
-
63
.
20
.
Janetsckek
G
,
Peschel
R
,
Franscher
F
:
Laparoscopic
pyeloplasty
.
Urol
Clin
North
Am
.
2000
;
27
:
695
-
704
.
21
.
Hobart
MG
,
Schweizer
D
,
Gill
IS
:
Bilateral
retroperitoneal
laparoscopic
nephrectomy
for
adult
polycistic
kidney
disease
.
J
Endourol
.
1999
;
13
(
suppl
1
)
:
90
-
1
.
Correspondence
to
Dr
.
Marcos
Tobias
-
Machado
Rua
Oscar
Freire
,
1546
/
53
São
Paulo
,
SP
,
05409
-
010
,
Brazil
Fax
:
+
55
11
3887
-
3363
E
-
mail
:
telmamsm
@
icrhcnet
.
usp
.
br
Received
:
April
14
,
2003
Accepted
after
revision
:
August
26
,
2003
©
2006
Sociedade
Brasileira
de
Urologia
Rua
Bambina
,
153
22251
-
050
Rio
de
Janeiro
RJ
Brazil
Tel
.
+
55
21
2539
-
6787
Fax
:
+
55
21
2246
-
4088
Introduction
to
the
Post
-
Human
Genome
Project
era
,
a
target
for
interactions
between
polygenic
and
/
or
multiphenotypical
components
in
cancer
control
in
South
America
Introducción
a
la
post
era
del
Proyeto
Genoma
Humano
:
la
interrelación
entre
componentes
multi
-
genéticos
y
multi
-
fenotípicos
en
el
control
del
cáncer
en
América
Latina
como
una
meta
1
International
Institute
of
Fertility
.
142
/
4
Achuza
Ra
'
anana
,
43300
,
Israel
.
2
Division
of
Environmental
and
Occupational
Health
,
Department
of
Life
Sciences
,
Bar
-
Ilan
University
.
Ramat
Gan
,
Israel
.
Abstract
Epidemiological
studies
have
suggested
that
the
propensity
to
develop
malignancy
involves
a
complex
mix
of
genetic
and
environmental
determinants
,
however
both
older
and
innovative
techniques
display
unresolved
questions
regarding
etiology
.
Current
barriers
to
achieving
the
potential
benefit
from
this
understanding
are
:
1
)
incomplete
background
on
the
various
environmental
and
genetic
factors
involved
in
the
carcinogenesis
mechanism
;
2
)
difficulties
in
accurately
differentiating
specific
molecular
subtypes
and
measuring
the
effective
cellular
exposure
dose
;
and
3
)
difficulties
in
determining
the
multifactorial
interaction
between
genetic
and
environmental
factors
.
To
extrapolate
Human
Genome
Project
research
findings
to
the
Post
-
Human
Genome
Project
era
,
South
America
provides
a
large
population
and
large
-
pedigree
families
,
thus
including
genetically
heterogeneous
and
less
heterogeneous
groups
.
An
initial
strategy
might
be
to
trace
high
risk
populations
and
the
respective
exposures
to
which
they
are
susceptible
,
such
as
:
1
)
migration
,
identifying
rural
migrant
populations
;
2
)
inherent
susceptibility
,
studying
"
long
term
homogeneous
populations
"
or
large
families
living
in
similar
rural
environments
;
and
3
)
dissection
of
gene
-
environmental
interaction
.
Key
words
Neoplasms
;
Population
Genetics
;
Human
Genome
Resumen
Estudios
epidemiológicos
han
demonstrado
que
la
susceptibilidad
de
la
población
a
las
enfermedades
malignas
está
basada
en
interrelaciones
genéticas
hereditarias
y
no
hereditarias
.
Las
técnicas
epidemiológicas
tradicionales
no
han
resuelto
los
problemas
básicos
de
los
mecanismos
etiológicos
.
Las
barreras
existentes
son
:
1
)
el
conocimiento
incompleto
de
las
etapas
del
mecanismo
de
la
carcinogénesis
accionada
por
factores
genéticos
y
ambientales
;
2
)
la
dificultad
en
delimitar
subtipos
específicos
de
neoplasmas
basados
en
mecanismos
moleculares
definidos
,
y
las
dosis
efectivas
de
exposición
celular
;
y
3
)
la
capacidad
en
determinar
la
interrelación
en
el
mecanismo
genético
-
ambiental
.
Anticipandose
al
futuro
,
América
Latina
presenta
la
oportunidad
para
capitalizar
los
recientes
avanzos
en
el
conocimiento
molecular
,
aplicando
técnicas
epidemiológicas
y
biológicas
.
La
primera
estrategia
es
la
delimitación
de
poblaciones
de
alto
riesgo
o
que
vengan
a
representar
alto
riesgo
en
el
futuro
.
Las
estrategias
deberian
identificar
:
1
)
poblaciones
de
migración
reciente
a
areas
urbanas
com
antecedentes
genéticos
homogéneos
;
2
)
susceptibilidad
genética
en
familias
numerosas
residentes
en
zonas
rurales
com
antecedentes
genéticos
homogéneos
y
menos
homogéneos
;
y
3
)
estudios
biológicos
específicos
de
la
interrelación
genética
ambiental
en
distintas
situaciones
multi
-
genéticas
y
multi
-
fenotípicas
entre
sus
componentes
.
Palabras
clave
Neoplasias
;
Genética
Poblacional
;
Genoma
Humano
One
chapter
,
one
challenge
The
primary
prevention
of
human
cancer
relies
on
the
idea
that
reducing
a
population
'
s
exposure
to
a
causal
risk
factor
will
result
in
decreased
cancer
incidence
.
Given
that
organisms
are
adversely
affected
by
hazardous
environments
,
susceptible
individuals
are
by
definition
affected
more
severely
or
more
quickly
under
hostile
surroundings
.
Hence
,
primary
prevention
is
reaching
new
areas
in
the
interrelationship
between
polygenic
(
multiple
genes
)
and
multifactorial
(
genetic
and
environmental
)
events
.
Owing
to
the
rapid
development
in
the
fields
of
molecular
biology
and
molecular
epidemiology
since
the
late
1980s
,
scientists
have
expanded
the
capacity
of
epidemiological
techniques
to
identify
the
biologically
effective
dose
at
tissue
targets
(
for
example
,
DNA
)
,
early
biological
effects
(
for
example
,
DNA
alterations
)
,
and
variations
in
individual
susceptibility
.
The
goals
are
a
chain
of
accurate
steps
from
host
-
biological
subtypes
,
determining
exposure
,
and
genetic
-
multifactorial
interrelations
(
Table
1
)
.
Available
biologic
evidence
shows
the
strengths
and
limitations
of
these
types
of
associations
,
particularly
in
susceptibility
to
chemically
-
induced
cancers
in
the
micro
-
environmental
field
(
read
specific
occupational
environments
)
and
the
extent
to
which
genetic
heterogeneity
and
other
factors
play
a
role
in
the
process
.
A
typical
example
from
traditional
epidemiological
research
on
potential
cancer
-
causing
exposures
with
successful
application
in
the
occupational
and
para
-
occupational
areas
of
preventive
interventions
is
that
of
asbestos
-
related
malignancies
.
However
,
not
all
associations
are
causal
and
not
all
exposure
-
cancer
associations
(
with
perhaps
a
thousand
associations
inferred
)
are
biologically
plausible
.
More
recent
epidemiological
studies
suggest
that
the
propensity
to
develop
a
malignancy
involves
a
complex
mix
of
genetic
and
environmental
determinants
and
therefore
shows
patterns
of
inheritance
that
do
not
follow
simple
Mendelian
transmission
(
Lander
&
Schork
,
1994
)
.
However
,
both
older
and
innovative
techniques
still
face
unresolved
fundamental
questions
regarding
etiology
,
susceptibility
,
and
environmental
carcinogenesis
.
As
mentioned
above
,
epidemiological
studies
have
used
measurement
in
hazardous
environments
,
where
individuals
are
affected
more
severely
or
more
quickly
under
hostile
surroundings
.
Two
examples
lead
to
different
approaches
to
the
dilemma
of
this
gene
-
environmental
interrelationship
.
As
a
first
example
,
case
-
control
epidemiological
studies
of
female
breast
cancer
,
describing
an
association
between
genetic
deficiency
in
isoforms
of
the
detoxification
enzyme
glutathione
S
-
transferase
(
GST
,
mainly
class
mu
in
post
-
menopausal
women
)
have
conflicting
results
(
Kelsey
et
al
.
,
1997
;
Helzsouer
et
al
.
,
1998
)
.
Could
differences
in
the
environmental
component
of
the
putative
gene
-
environmental
interaction
be
responsible
for
dissimilar
results
such
as
geographic
distribution
,
exposure
,
and
/
or
ethnicity
(
Laden
et
al
.
,
1997
;
Hartmann
et
al
.
,
1997
)
?
If
so
,
these
lines
point
to
a
diversity
of
mutational
exposures
in
breast
cancer
,
where
environmental
studies
should
be
guided
by
a
classification
into
genetically
homogeneous
populations
to
show
sufficient
evidence
of
biological
plausibility
.
The
second
example
is
from
the
study
of
the
so
-
called
"
A
-
bomb
survivors
"
,
focusing
on
the
quantified
leukemia
relative
risk
of
75
,
991
Japanese
survivors
for
whom
radiation
exposure
levels
were
available
(
Shimizu
et
al
.
,
1990
)
.
Two
hundred
and
two
survivors
developed
leukemia
between
1950
and
1985
,
but
the
relative
risk
declined
from
11
.
7
to
1
.
8
over
time
.
The
exposed
Japanese
population
is
genetically
less
heterogeneous
than
other
populations
in
the
cancer
surveillance
network
,
but
even
in
this
example
,
distinctive
mutational
patterns
were
able
to
differentiate
the
highly
susceptible
population
with
a
short
exposure
-
to
-
diagnosis
interval
.
In
terms
of
similar
evidence
of
environmental
-
gene
interaction
,
it
is
reasonable
to
cite
the
example
of
the
differential
risk
of
workers
exposed
to
benzene
in
the
development
of
leukemia
and
bone
marrow
aplasia
(
Aksoy
,
1985
;
Linet
et
al
.
,
1996
)
.
Far
from
being
fully
clarified
,
this
genetically
complex
disease
involving
traditional
exposure
-
related
association
(
environmental
or
occupational
)
with
cancer
has
produced
novel
approaches
to
define
the
role
of
genetic
susceptibility
in
epidemiological
studies
of
cancer
etiology
.
Individual
genetic
susceptibility
is
a
major
etiologic
factor
of
cancer
.
While
there
has
been
impressive
progress
in
understanding
monogenetic
diseases
prone
to
cancer
risk
,
for
example
ataxia
-
teleangiectasia
(
Gilad
et
al
.
,
1998
)
,
or
which
are
associated
with
an
inherent
dominant
gene
such
as
bilateral
retinoblastoma
(
Sippel
et
al
.
,
1998
)
,
such
studies
have
had
relatively
little
impact
on
prevention
,
implications
in
cancer
control
,
and
public
health
perspectives
,
due
to
the
low
incidence
of
most
of
these
diseases
.
In
contrast
,
as
was
pointed
out
,
more
important
traits
related
to
the
propensity
to
develop
neoplasms
follow
more
complex
polygenetic
and
multifactorial
patterns
(
Weeks
&
Lathrop
,
1995
;
Risch
&
Merikangas
,
1996
)
.
Such
complexity
makes
it
difficult
to
characterize
and
identify
each
and
every
factor
contributing
to
cancer
etiology
in
a
given
individual
or
in
the
population
at
large
.
The
following
are
some
of
the
current
barriers
to
achieving
the
potential
benefit
from
this
understanding
:
1
)
Incomplete
understanding
of
the
various
environmental
and
genetic
factors
involved
in
the
carcinogenesis
mechanism
and
difficulties
in
their
assessment
.
2
)
Difficulties
in
accurately
differentiating
specific
molecular
mechanisms
.
3
)
Limitations
in
measuring
the
effective
cellular
exposure
dose
and
it
interrelationship
with
the
polygenetic
etiology
and
the
effective
individual
exposure
.
4
)
Limited
ability
to
determine
the
multiple
interaction
between
genetic
and
environmental
factors
.
This
interaction
gene
/
mutation
specific
creates
"
the
phenomenon
of
differential
genetic
susceptibility
to
certain
environmental
influences
"
(
Xu
&
Schork
,
1997
:
521
)
.
Another
barrier
to
identifying
environmental
factor
(
s
)
for
neoplasms
is
the
paucity
of
appropriate
epidemiological
studies
conducted
in
the
field
,
for
example
,
individual
developmental
and
differential
phenotypical
modes
of
transmission
,
genetic
heterogeneity
,
incomplete
genetic
penetrance
,
and
delayed
age
of
onset
.
Of
course
,
a
potential
effect
of
the
use
of
molecular
epidemiology
is
that
it
will
increase
the
number
of
subsets
in
each
traditionally
defined
neoplasm
type
,
and
as
molecular
assays
become
more
sensitive
,
the
probability
of
false
-
positive
findings
increases
and
diagnostic
specificity
is
reduced
.
By
the
years
2003
-
2005
it
is
expected
that
the
3
billion
base
-
pairs
human
genome
will
have
been
completely
explored
and
its
50
,
000
-
100
,
000
genes
deciphered
(
Boguski
,
1995
;
Schuler
et
al
.
,
1996
)
.
As
a
result
,
it
will
become
possible
to
identify
mutant
genes
and
polymorphic
alleles
associated
with
the
development
of
most
neoplasms
.
In
addition
,
the
ability
to
accurately
measure
molecular
markers
of
exposure
(
for
example
,
DNA
protein
adduct
,
see
Table
1
)
will
help
in
the
analysis
of
the
differential
contribution
of
each
environmental
carcinogen
to
the
development
of
malignancies
(
Perera
,
1996
,
1997
)
.
To
date
,
the
most
common
use
of
biomarkers
in
cancer
research
is
in
analyzing
the
complex
interplay
of
various
molecular
determinants
in
the
initiation
of
neoplasms
.
Illustrating
this
situation
of
the
conjunction
of
molecular
epidemiology
techniques
and
the
information
to
come
from
the
Human
Genome
Project
,
some
potential
future
issues
will
be
the
solution
to
small
sample
sizes
in
study
populations
,
inappropriate
selection
of
controls
,
subclassification
of
neoplasms
,
and
difficulties
in
identifying
multifactorial
interactions
between
polygenic
and
/
or
multiphenotypical
components
.
This
situation
is
currently
unsatisfactory
using
traditional
epidemiological
methods
and
will
continue
to
pose
problems
if
the
Human
Genome
Project
potential
is
not
applied
to
develop
an
understanding
of
novel
gene
-
environmental
interaction
in
an
area
like
Latin
America
with
a
broad
socioeconomic
transition
.
These
new
aspects
point
to
a
diversity
of
challenges
in
cancer
research
and
may
be
critical
for
future
studies
of
genes
related
to
environmental
susceptibility
to
incorporate
larger
scale
studies
with
more
sophisticated
methods
of
neoplasm
subclassification
into
etiologically
more
homogeneous
groups
.
The
critical
element
,
at
least
up
to
now
,
has
been
the
potential
public
impact
and
potential
benefits
associated
with
interventions
based
on
common
genetic
risks
.
A
full
understanding
of
the
mechanism
involved
in
gene
-
environmental
mechanisms
could
lead
to
preventive
measures
,
including
the
management
of
high
-
risk
groups
carrying
inherent
germ
-
line
genes
.
In
the
face
of
inconsistent
population
studies
and
elusive
environmental
risk
factors
related
to
the
environmental
-
genetic
complex
which
begins
to
emerge
in
specific
cancer
sites
for
example
in
ductal
breast
cancer
,
understanding
the
role
of
GSTs
in
the
glutathione
conjugation
of
estrogens
and
lipid
metabolism
in
different
germ
-
line
mutation
carrier
populations
(
Zhu
&
Conney
,
1998
)
one
would
ask
what
might
be
the
appropriate
critical
approach
to
evaluating
this
threshold
of
evidence
for
accepting
putative
etiology
associated
with
potential
public
health
impact
.
To
extrapolate
the
Human
Genome
Project
research
findings
to
the
Post
-
Human
Genome
Project
era
in
order
to
the
study
cancer
in
human
population
,
three
important
concepts
could
apply
:
a
)
the
sample
size
must
be
large
;
b
)
large
study
should
cover
both
,
long
-
term
isolated
populations
and
those
having
migrated
recently
from
remote
to
more
urban
and
industrial
areas
;
and
c
)
and
the
markers
must
be
informative
(
Ishibe
&
Kelsey
,
1997
)
.
An
initial
strategy
could
be
to
trace
high
-
risk
populations
and
the
respective
exposures
to
which
they
are
susceptible
.
The
following
approach
would
facilitate
this
strategy
:
a
)
Migration
study
by
identifying
rural
migrant
populations
living
in
urban
areas
.
By
identifying
the
rural
areas
from
which
the
population
came
and
comparing
cancer
burden
between
the
urban
(
host
)
and
rural
(
origin
)
areas
,
it
is
possible
to
estimate
the
attributable
fraction
of
neoplasm
associated
with
the
urban
environment
without
confounding
from
genetic
factors
.
Rural
migrants
may
be
moving
on
a
large
scale
from
the
same
region
,
and
they
may
be
genetically
homogeneous
,
thus
facilitating
gene
-
mapping
studies
(
Khoury
et
al
.
,
1998
)
from
China
.
The
following
is
an
example
from
two
parallel
studies
conducted
in
Los
Angeles
(
Douer
et
al
.
,
1996
)
.
Acute
promyelocytic
leukemia
(
or
acute
myeolocytic
leukemia
FAB
-
M3
)
was
found
to
be
significantly
higher
in
Hispanics
than
in
non
-
Hispanics
(
proportions
:
37
.
%
and
6
.
5
%
,
respectively
,
p
<
0
.
00001
)
in
a
hospital
-
based
study
on
recent
migrant
groups
.
A
similar
trend
,
although
to
a
lesser
but
still
significant
degree
,
was
found
in
a
population
-
based
epidemiological
study
at
age
30
-
69
years
in
the
same
area
,
for
at
least
15
years
prior
to
the
diagnosis
of
acute
promyelocytic
leukemia
in
the
migrant
Hispanic
population
as
compared
to
the
non
-
Hispanic
population
(
proportion
24
.
3
.
%
and
8
.
3
%
,
respectively
,
p
<
0
.
0075
)
.
The
difference
in
estimated
risks
of
acute
promyelocytic
leukemia
in
the
two
studies
,
performed
in
the
same
study
area
,
may
reflect
different
environmental
exposures
,
as
the
authors
point
out
,
due
to
the
migration
effect
.
The
rate
in
the
population
-
based
study
is
much
closer
to
the
non
-
Hispanic
population
,
but
still
significantly
higher
,
probably
as
a
result
not
only
of
differences
in
genetic
susceptibility
,
but
also
of
long
-
term
residence
in
Los
Angeles
(
at
least
15
years
)
,
compared
with
the
hospital
series
chapter
of
the
study
.
b
)
Inherent
susceptibility
by
studying
large
families
or
"
long
-
term
homogeneous
populations
"
living
in
similar
rural
environments
and
in
the
native
population
.
In
South
America
,
there
are
still
isolated
populations
that
are
ideal
for
researching
linkage
disequilibrium
mapping
(
Jorge
,
1995
)
.
Studying
disequilibrium
mapping
in
this
population
in
large
-
pedigree
families
with
high
birth
rates
and
a
younger
population
could
prove
useful
for
valuable
segregation
for
narrowing
chromosomal
regions
.
Searching
large
-
pedigree
families
could
facilitate
the
study
,
of
discordant
sib
-
pairs
in
gene
mapping
,
useful
to
identify
new
environmental
risk
factors
,
controlling
for
genetic
heterogeneity
.
c
)
Dissection
of
gene
-
environmental
interaction
.
Differential
genetic
susceptibility
to
specific
environmental
exposures
is
an
essential
part
to
elucidate
the
pathogenesis
of
neoplasms
.
By
identifying
large
non
-
hereditary
neoplasms
in
high
-
risk
populations
and
new
disease
-
susceptibility
genes
(
after
the
Human
Genome
Project
)
,
it
will
facilitate
identification
of
the
precise
pathogenesis
mechanisms
.
One
barrier
in
traditional
epidemiological
research
is
the
apparent
lack
of
success
in
identifying
the
environmental
risk
factor
(
s
)
which
can
contribute
to
the
paucity
of
controlling
environmental
exposure
misclassification
.
The
potential
advantage
in
these
studies
using
gene
-
environmental
dissection
is
that
occupational
and
environmental
exposures
to
risk
factors
are
determined
within
the
disease
group
and
compared
between
those
who
carry
a
specific
gene
-
susceptibility
and
those
who
do
not
(
Dorman
et
al
.
,
1988
)
.
Comparison
analysis
of
the
genotypical
determinant
of
the
disease
and
its
associated
absolute
risk
across
the
population
(
migrants
,
rural
/
urban
,
industrialized
/
primary
economy
)
may
provide
clues
as
to
specific
mechanisms
of
pathogenesis
and
etiology
,
in
addition
to
new
therapeutic
and
specific
preventive
interventions
.
Few
epidemiological
studies
have
been
conducted
that
analyze
the
interplay
between
environmental
factors
and
DNA
or
cytogenetic
changes
;
most
of
them
were
retrospective
and
focused
on
this
association
,
without
adjusting
for
genetic
factors
(
see
Table
1
)
.
An
example
was
an
epidemiological
study
on
women
working
in
agriculture
,
the
textile
industry
,
and
housewives
using
a
mailing
survey
through
the
Swedish
Environmental
Cancer
registry
,
in
which
emphasis
was
given
to
ascertaining
past
exposure
,
showing
increased
risk
in
specific
hematopoietic
neoplasms
(
i
.
e
.
,
adjusted
standardized
incidence
ratio
of
3
.
6
for
multiple
myeloma
in
textile
workers
)
(
Linnet
et
al
.
,
1994
)
.
Moreover
,
as
the
author
mentioned
,
the
study
lacked
detailed
information
on
specific
exposure
types
and
duration
of
exposure
,
and
occupational
data
were
compared
with
compiled
groups
of
neoplasms
rather
than
with
dissected
gene
-
environmental
components
.
Conduction
of
comprehensive
data
-
bases
that
are
informative
(
including
incidence
and
an
occupational
-
environmental
matrix
)
,
representative
(
population
-
based
,
large
-
pedigree
families
,
and
isolated
populations
)
,
and
with
reliable
biological
samples
in
South
America
should
allow
for
testing
innovative
hypotheses
in
the
post
-
Human
Genome
Project
era
.
Traditionally
,
an
ecological
study
examines
the
relationship
between
the
disease
and
the
direct
event
,
such
as
environmental
exposure
across
various
populations
.
In
addition
,
the
use
of
large
numbers
of
cells
across
regions
will
somehow
ensure
random
cross
-
regional
relation
between
the
disease
,
the
exposure
,
and
their
covariates
(
Cohen
,
1990
)
.
Furthermore
,
it
is
sometimes
assumed
that
for
spatial
correlation
to
be
compared
,
region
itself
must
be
a
confounder
on
the
individual
level
after
other
factors
are
controlled
.
There
are
already
a
number
of
descriptive
epidemiological
reviews
that
have
accurately
illustrated
cross
-
sectional
estimates
and
trends
in
cancer
incidence
and
mortality
by
region
(
Coleman
et
al
.
,
1993
;
Parkin
et
al
.
,
1997
;
Pisani
et
al
.
,
1997
)
,
and
it
is
not
intended
to
replicate
them
here
.
Instead
,
focus
will
be
on
recent
data
and
the
potential
of
increasing
informative
sources
for
interaction
between
polygenic
and
/
or
multiphenotypical
components
.
It
is
beyond
the
purpose
of
these
comments
to
fully
explore
cancer
registration
in
South
America
.
Data
presented
here
,
comprise
more
or
less
5
-
6
%
of
the
population
living
in
the
region
,
which
apart
from
statistical
variation
,
remain
low
and
randomly
representative
of
demographic
and
environmental
components
of
the
continent
.
Given
this
limitation
,
Table
2
shows
cancer
burden
from
recently
published
incidence
data
by
population
-
based
registries
across
regions
compared
to
South
America
as
a
population
reference
.
There
is
a
substantial
variation
in
the
incidence
of
these
selected
cancer
sites
.
Briefly
,
all
neoplasms
in
both
sexes
are
lower
compared
with
others
regions
.
Moreover
,
the
esophagus
,
stomach
,
and
uterine
cervix
showed
higher
incidence
rates
.
In
a
more
detailed
analysis
based
on
the
same
cancer
registration
network
(
Table
3
)
,
a
heterogeneity
of
incidence
rates
could
shed
light
on
the
selected
cancer
sites
.
It
is
likely
that
the
information
processes
among
the
various
registries
and
diagnostic
criteria
tend
to
explains
the
heterogeneity
of
incidence
rates
,
yet
clear
patterns
emerge
from
the
network
information
.
Prostate
and
uterine
cervical
cancer
varied
inversely
across
South
America
.
Incidence
of
esophagus
,
colon
,
and
breast
cancers
in
both
gender
differs
significantly
between
the
highest
southern
and
lowest
northern
areas
.
These
results
from
the
two
areas
indicate
clear
patterns
which
may
suggest
different
environmental
factors
and
/
or
demographic
components
.
Returning
to
the
enigma
in
the
title
,
we
still
have
to
live
with
it
in
times
to
come
.
The
philosophical
drama
represented
in
Greek
theater
is
still
upon
our
shoulders
.
However
,
in
taking
one
step
forward
in
a
long
march
,
the
ties
among
experts
in
different
fields
must
further
enhance
"
the
enigma
in
the
title
"
.
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©
2006
Escola
Nacional
de
Saúde
Pública
,
Fundação
Oswaldo
Cruz
Rua
Leopoldo
Bulhões
,
1480
21041
-
210
Rio
de
Janeiro
RJ
Brazil
Tel
.
:
+
55
21
2598
-
2511
/
+
55
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2514
The
International
Mathematical
Union
(
IMU
)
created
the
International
Commission
on
Mathematical
Education
(
ICMI
)
.
This
Commission
sponsored
the
Interamerican
Conferences
on
Mathematics
Education
,
summoned
for
the
purpose
of
discussing
the
problems
posed
by
Mathematics
teaching
in
the
various
countries
of
the
Americas
.
The
first
two
conferences
were
of
extraordinary
importance
and
greatly
influenced
the
teaching
of
Mathematics
in
participating
countries
.
This
influence
was
a
consequence
of
the
clear
definition
of
the
main
goal
of
both
events
:
to
introduce
into
the
curricula
(
especially
in
secondary
schools
)
the
subjects
,
language
and
methods
of
"
Modern
Mathematics
"
.
THE
FIRST
CONFERENCE
The
First
Interamerican
Conference
on
Mathematics
Education
was
held
in
Bogotá
,
Colombia
,
on
December
4
-
9
,
1961
.
It
was
sponsored
by
the
International
Commission
on
Mathematical
Instruction
and
the
Organization
of
American
States
(
OAS
)
,
and
was
attended
by
mathematicians
and
Mathematics
teachers
,
as
representatives
or
guests
,
from
23
American
countries
.
Some
of
these
professionals
,
as
well
as
distinguished
European
mathematicians
,
were
invited
to
lecture
on
Modern
Math
and
also
on
how
to
teach
it
and
promote
its
acceptance
.
The
main
purpose
of
this
Conference
was
to
explore
the
methods
of
teaching
Mathematics
at
the
secondary
school
level
and
also
in
colleges
and
universities
,
and
to
pass
resolutions
with
a
view
to
future
cooperation
.
More
specifically
,
the
intention
was
to
introduce
in
Latin
America
the
reform
of
Mathematics
teaching
(
at
the
secondary
level
)
that
was
going
on
in
many
countries
,
especially
in
Europe
and
the
United
States
.
As
explained
in
the
preceding
chapter
,
this
reform
was
a
worldwide
movement
that
began
in
the
1950
'
s
,
whose
purpose
was
to
reform
Mathematics
syllabi
and
curricula
that
were
in
force
at
the
secondary
level
.
The
reform
was
initiated
in
the
developed
countries
,
especially
the
United
States
and
France
,
and
was
born
as
a
response
to
a
problem
that
,
at
that
time
,
was
considered
to
be
critical
:
the
need
to
bridge
the
gap
between
Mathematics
as
practiced
by
researchers
and
professionals
in
the
field
,
on
the
one
hand
,
and
,
on
the
other
,
the
type
of
Mathematics
then
taught
in
secondary
schools
.
The
concepts
that
were
to
be
introduced
in
elementary
and
secondary
schools
were
not
precisely
the
connections
between
Mathematics
and
the
natural
sciences
,
nor
Discrete
Math
,
but
set
theory
,
abstract
algebraic
structures
,
and
unifying
and
universal
concepts
.
The
purpose
was
to
give
unity
to
Mathematics
,
using
sets
,
relations
,
functions
and
operations
as
basic
concepts
,
as
well
as
fundamental
structures
of
groups
,
rings
,
fields
,
and
vector
spaces
.
The
need
to
adopt
modern
symbolism
was
also
established
.
Thus
,
the
main
objective
of
this
Conference
was
to
foster
these
approaches
among
the
delegates
and
to
reach
a
commitment
from
them
,
asking
that
they
promote
curricular
changes
in
their
respective
countries
.
The
opening
address
was
given
by
Dr
.
Marshall
Stone
,
President
of
the
International
Commission
on
Mathematical
Instruction
,
who
gave
a
brief
summary
of
the
process
of
implementing
Modern
Math
in
European
and
U
.
S
.
secondary
schools
.
THE
IDEAS
The
main
ideas
brought
forward
in
this
Conference
were
the
following
:
(
a
)
The
need
to
change
the
way
of
teaching
Geometry
in
Secondary
Schools
:
to
teach
Geometry
from
the
perspective
of
Linear
Algebra
,
forsaking
Euclidean
Geometry
.
(
b
)
The
need
to
teach
Mathematics
,
in
general
,
through
the
study
of
the
fundamental
structures
,
with
the
purpose
of
underscoring
their
unity
.
In
this
area
,
the
teaching
of
Modern
Algebra
became
of
paramount
importance
.
(
c
)
The
above
goals
could
only
be
achieved
if
,
at
the
same
time
,
a
well
-
organized
plan
was
carried
out
that
was
oriented
to
the
in
-
service
training
of
teachers
,
thus
preparing
new
mathematics
teaching
professionals
with
the
ideas
of
the
reform
,
as
well
as
improving
research
in
mathematics
(
d
)
The
above
goals
could
not
be
achieved
without
a
parallel
plan
,
very
well
organized
and
aimed
the
training
of
professors
who
were
currently
teaching
.
The
aim
was
to
instill
these
ideas
in
new
teachers
of
Math
,
and
also
to
upgrade
Mathematics
research
.
As
far
as
the
first
of
the
above
points
is
concerned
,
Professor
Howard
Fehr
,
from
the
United
States
(
who
had
represented
his
country
at
the
1958
Edinburgh
Conference
)
,
set
forth
the
major
ideas
with
his
contribution
:
"
Reforming
the
Teaching
of
Geometry
"
.
He
gave
a
brief
account
of
the
development
of
Geometry
,
emphasizing
that
,
in
spite
of
the
new
developments
that
took
place
at
the
turn
of
the
century
,
which
indicated
new
directions
,
Euclidean
Geometry
still
begin
taught
in
secondary
schools
.
Fehr
was
very
much
against
this
state
of
affairs
,
up
to
the
point
of
stating
that
"
Euclidean
Geometry
(
...
)
has
nothing
to
do
with
these
subjects
;
nowadays
it
is
sterile
,
outside
the
main
course
of
mathematical
advancement
,
and
it
can
be
filed
in
the
archives
,
without
any
fear
,
for
the
benefit
of
future
historians
"
[
i
]
.
Fehr
,
in
his
address
to
the
Conference
,
critically
questioned
the
teaching
of
Euclidean
Geometry
in
secondary
schools
,
and
strongly
supported
the
thesis
advanced
by
Dieudonné
in
Royaumont
.
Moreover
,
Fehr
proposed
a
program
for
teaching
geometry
in
secondary
schools
.
He
said
that
it
was
possible
to
teach
the
essentials
of
Euclidean
Geometry
in
two
or
three
months
.
Thereafter
,
additional
deductive
work
in
Algebra
should
be
given
to
the
students
,
including
new
number
systems
and
algebraic
structures
;
finally
,
a
combination
of
Algebra
and
Geometry
through
the
study
of
affine
plane
Geometry
.
All
of
this
was
in
line
with
the
ideas
proposed
in
Royaumont
by
Dieudonné
and
Choquet
,
and
with
the
viewpoints
expressed
by
Henri
Cartan
at
the
Bologna
meeting
.
In
other
words
,
the
purpose
was
to
guide
the
students
,
as
rapidly
as
possible
,
towards
the
study
of
vector
spaces
.
However
,
in
spite
of
all
this
,
Fehr
himself
cautioned
that
,
at
this
level
,
axiomatic
knowledge
should
not
be
given
too
much
emphasis
.
Challenging
this
position
,
in
the
debate
following
Fehr
'
s
presentation
,
the
delegates
from
several
countries
voiced
their
doubts
.
For
instance
,
Professor
Catunda
(
Brazil
)
disagreed
with
Fehr
'
s
vision
and
asked
if
in
his
country
it
would
not
be
convenient
"
at
least
Euclidean
Geometry
"
,
and
Coleman
(
Canada
)
explained
that
,
in
his
own
country
,
the
reason
to
teach
Euclidean
Geometry
was
that
"
whoever
has
developed
an
interest
in
Mathematics
found
in
Euclid
his
or
her
first
incentive
"
.
In
general
terms
,
however
,
the
discussion
evidenced
a
certain
degree
of
agreement
(
arising
mainly
from
the
European
guests
)
with
the
ideas
advanced
by
Fehr
.
Choquet
agreed
with
Fehr
,
although
favoring
the
introduction
of
axioms
,
and
Pauli
(
Switzerland
)
said
that
the
ideas
advocated
by
Fehr
had
been
implemented
in
his
country
for
the
last
ten
years
.
Fehr
'
s
presentation
along
with
the
debate
that
we
have
summarized
is
very
illustrative
of
the
objectives
of
this
First
Conference
and
the
doubts
that
were
still
present
in
that
moment
.
As
can
be
observed
,
the
ideas
of
both
Choquet
and
Pauli
contributed
to
develop
the
criterion
for
change
in
the
teaching
of
Geometry
,
despite
the
resistance
of
some
of
the
participants
such
as
Catunda
and
Coleman
who
expressed
their
doubts
with
at
least
this
aspect
of
the
reform
.
The
second
of
the
ideas
indicated
in
(
b
)
above
,
was
present
throughout
the
conference
,
especially
in
the
presentations
of
those
invited
from
France
and
the
United
States
.
This
can
be
seen
as
much
in
their
presentations
as
in
their
interventions
in
the
debates
.
In
this
regard
two
of
the
presentations
were
very
significant
.
That
of
Choquet
(
France
)
entitled
"
The
New
Math
and
its
Teaching
"
and
that
of
Marshall
Stone
called
"
Some
Characteristic
Tendencies
in
Modern
Mathematics
"
.
In
the
first
of
those
presentations
,
Choquet
began
by
giving
a
quick
overview
of
modern
Mathematics
and
then
his
view
of
what
mathematics
should
be
included
in
secondary
education
.
His
opinion
was
that
teaching
at
all
levels
should
be
revised
to
reflect
the
discovery
of
the
fundamental
structures
,
given
that
as
we
move
toward
an
increasingly
greater
unity
of
mathematics
we
should
also
move
to
a
unity
in
its
teaching
at
all
levels
.
He
said
:
"
Our
lemma
will
be
:
algebra
and
the
fundamental
structures
from
the
School
to
the
University
"
[
ii
]
.
An
interesting
detail
:
Choquet
added
that
all
teaching
based
on
the
historical
method
had
become
inconceivable
.
His
entire
discourse
pointed
out
the
need
to
put
the
student
in
contact
as
soon
as
possible
with
the
unifying
concepts
and
fundamental
structures
.
He
noted
the
need
for
the
mathematician
,
giving
little
importance
to
psychopedagogical
considerations
.
For
example
,
he
expounded
the
following
principles
:
"
1
.
We
should
accustom
our
students
to
think
in
terms
of
set
and
operations
as
early
as
possible
.
It
will
be
necessary
to
teach
the
simple
,
universal
,
and
precise
language
of
sets
.
At
the
same
time
we
should
teach
them
the
rudiments
of
logic
in
its
relation
to
the
grammatical
study
of
their
language
(
to
negate
a
proposition
,
to
understand
the
force
of
the
words
and
,
o
r
,
for
all
,
there
exists
)
.
2
.
At
a
very
early
age
,
our
students
should
have
a
clear
understanding
of
the
concept
of
function
.
They
should
be
able
to
construct
various
examples
of
functions
in
arithmetic
,
algebra
,
physics
,
and
to
produce
the
composition
of
two
functions
,
to
take
the
inverse
function
of
a
biunique
function
,
to
recognize
a
group
of
transformations
.
3
.
The
students
should
be
able
to
recognize
at
an
early
age
the
relation
of
equivalence
(
numerous
examples
;
quotient
-
sets
)
,
relations
of
order
,
and
they
should
study
some
concepts
of
topology
.
4
.
In
all
fields
,
it
will
be
necessary
to
get
directly
at
the
essential
tools
that
have
numerous
and
immediate
applications
"
[
iii
]
Marshall
Stone
complemented
these
ideas
by
proposing
,
as
something
of
great
importance
,
the
development
of
the
basic
elements
of
Modern
Algebra
in
secondary
teaching
.
He
indicated
that
it
seemed
possible
to
teach
Modern
Algebra
at
the
secondary
level
up
to
the
point
of
treating
polynomial
rings
in
a
field
.
Nevertheless
,
in
the
debate
that
followed
,
doubts
were
expressed
.
Professor
Laguardia
pointed
out
a
fundamental
aspect
that
had
not
been
taken
into
consideration
:
How
to
take
into
account
the
psychological
development
of
youth
?
There
was
no
adequate
response
to
his
question
.
Thus
,
there
remained
a
doubt
with
respect
to
the
relevance
of
the
reform
,
at
least
in
the
form
in
which
it
was
being
suggested
.
It
can
be
said
that
those
two
presentations
are
a
reliable
representation
of
the
ideas
that
the
organizers
of
the
Conference
had
in
mind
.
However
,
many
of
the
other
presentations
were
along
the
same
lines
,
although
,
perhaps
,
not
with
the
same
clarity
in
their
thinking
.
Among
them
were
the
presentations
of
the
Latin
American
educators
.
The
first
of
those
was
from
Professor
Alberto
González
Domínguez
of
Argentina
entitled
"
Mathematics
and
our
Technological
Society
"
.
Professor
González
expressed
some
ideas
about
the
relations
mathematics
-
physics
,
mathematics
-
automatization
,
and
the
importance
of
mathematics
reasoning
for
approaching
many
technological
and
scientific
problems
.
His
interest
was
in
making
that
point
,
but
he
did
not
propose
any
initiatives
for
the
teaching
of
mathematics
.
Another
presentation
along
the
same
lines
was
given
by
Professor
Enrique
Cansado
of
Chile
and
was
called
"
Modern
Applications
of
Mathematics
"
.
He
mentioned
some
of
the
applications
of
mathematics
such
as
operations
research
,
linear
programming
,
the
simplex
method
,
nonlinear
programming
,
dynamic
programming
,
game
theory
,
etc
.
His
thesis
was
that
these
theories
,
at
least
in
their
elemental
level
,
should
be
introduced
into
secondary
teaching
.
However
,
in
the
debate
that
followed
,
some
of
the
participants
,
especially
the
Europeans
Choquet
(
France
)
and
Bungaard
(
Denmark
)
,
suggested
that
there
were
more
interesting
and
important
topics
for
secondary
mathematics
,
namely
,
those
topics
mentioned
above
.
It
should
be
said
that
not
everyone
was
in
agreement
with
the
main
ideas
being
presented
;
at
least
as
they
were
conceived
.
In
general
,
some
presentations
implied
the
need
for
change
,
but
for
many
of
the
participants
it
appeared
that
the
changes
being
proposed
were
too
radical
.
For
example
,
in
his
talk
on
"
Some
Ideas
about
the
Teaching
of
Mathematics
in
the
University
"
,
Professor
Guillermo
Torres
(
Mexico
)
expressed
his
doubts
about
what
should
be
taught
and
how
it
should
be
taught
.
His
thesis
was
that
you
could
not
just
abandon
entire
topics
from
classical
mathematics
,
as
it
would
then
be
possible
to
fall
into
formal
definitions
and
concepts
that
would
communicate
absolutely
nothing
to
students
,
given
that
they
would
not
be
familiar
with
specific
cases
that
are
more
concrete
.
He
indicated
that
the
new
ideas
that
students
acquire
should
be
accepted
by
them
as
something
natural
.
He
further
suggested
that
mathematics
should
be
taught
by
more
or
less
following
its
historical
development
.
This
was
a
focus
in
opposition
to
that
expressed
by
Choquet
(
who
said
that
teaching
based
on
the
historical
method
was
inconceivable
)
.
Countering
that
,
Torres
claimed
that
the
presentation
of
mathematics
in
its
exclusively
formal
aspect
"
makes
it
appear
to
be
an
inhuman
activity
and
with
no
sense
at
all
,
"
even
though
that
was
the
style
that
was
being
imposed
more
and
more
.
The
last
of
the
main
ideas
of
the
Conference
was
of
a
more
operational
nature
.
It
is
obvious
that
no
reform
can
be
carried
out
without
adequate
preparation
of
personnel
that
are
in
direct
contact
with
the
students
and
are
putting
into
practice
the
teaching
of
so
many
new
concepts
(
and
old
ones
too
but
with
a
new
language
and
organized
differently
)
.
Therefore
the
professional
development
of
teachers
who
would
carry
out
the
reform
was
very
important
.
Thus
,
two
of
the
presentations
were
on
the
preparation
of
mathematic
teachers
and
were
given
by
Latin
American
professors
:
A
.
Valeiras
and
Luis
Santaló
(
Argentina
)
[
iv
]
,
"
The
Formation
of
Mathematics
Teachers
"
,
and
Omar
Catunda
of
(
Brazil
)
,
"
The
Preparation
of
Mathematics
Teachers
"
.
These
presentations
and
the
debate
that
followed
were
very
important
because
they
made
clear
a
situation
with
respect
to
teaching
mathematics
in
Latin
American
countries
(
which
is
very
similar
to
what
happens
still
)
:
a
lack
of
fully
-
trained
teachers
,
inadequate
preparation
,
difficulties
of
support
and
professional
development
,
etc
.
In
this
respect
the
statement
of
Prof
.
Catunda
is
very
illustrative
:
"
the
formula
that
I
would
shout
for
Brazil
is
not
'
Down
with
Euclid
'
,
but
'
At
least
Euclid
'
[
v
]
"
.
There
were
also
presentations
that
offered
information
on
and
analyzed
mathematics
programs
in
countries
where
reform
efforts
were
already
underway
.
They
served
to
support
the
ideas
presented
in
the
talks
in
favor
of
the
reform
.
Among
them
were
the
following
:
"
New
Tendencies
in
the
Teaching
of
Mathematics
in
Colleges
in
the
United
States
"
,
Professor
E
.
J
.
McShane
(
USA
)
;
"
The
Mathematics
Programs
in
Swiss
Secondary
Schools
,
Professor
Laurent
Pauli
(
Switzerland
)
;
and
"
The
Mathematics
Program
in
Denmark
"
,
Professor
Sven
Bungaard
(
Denmark
)
.
They
presented
experiences
on
the
teaching
of
mathematics
in
their
countries
.
The
address
of
Professor
E
.
G
.
Begle
(
USA
)
,
"
The
Reform
of
Mathematics
Education
in
the
United
States
"
,
indicated
how
reform
of
mathematics
teaching
was
being
carried
out
in
that
country
.
He
explained
the
predominant
role
of
the
School
Mathematics
Study
Group
(
SMSG
)
in
its
efforts
for
improving
the
school
program
by
providing
materials
and
guidelines
for
the
preparation
and
in
-
service
training
of
teachers
,
as
well
as
the
strong
financial
support
provided
by
the
National
Science
Foundation
(
NSF
)
.
The
last
address
was
given
by
Professor
Schwartz
(
France
)
on
"
The
Role
of
Mathematics
in
Physics
from
the
Point
of
View
of
Scientific
Education
"
.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The
crystallization
of
the
main
ideas
expressed
and
discussed
was
presented
in
the
resolutions
of
the
Conference
.
They
were
divided
into
three
areas
:
I
.
Preparation
of
Teachers
.
II
.
In
-
Service
Teachers
.
III
.
Improving
teaching
.
To
better
understand
the
scope
of
that
first
conference
it
is
necessary
to
consider
some
of
those
resolutions
.
"
I
.
In
connection
with
training
of
teachers
,
1
.
That
centers
for
the
training
of
high
school
mathematics
teachers
should
offer
scholarships
and
other
facilities
to
those
students
who
choose
this
career
and
that
high
school
students
should
be
informed
,
by
means
of
conferences
and
publications
,
of
the
existence
of
a
career
as
teachers
and
researchers
in
this
field
,
and
of
the
social
importance
and
of
the
possibilities
offered
to
those
who
follow
it
.
2
.
That
the
training
of
teachers
of
mathematics
should
be
the
sole
responsibility
of
the
university
and
under
the
influence
of
the
most
competent
mathematicians
,
to
avoid
the
cleavage
between
the
teaching
of
mathematics
and
progress
in
science
and
technology
.
In
the
meantime
,
where
this
training
is
carried
out
in
special
institutions
,
mathematics
courses
should
be
of
a
university
level
.
3
.
That
in
the
training
of
teachers
of
mathematics
in
the
secondary
schools
,
the
courses
should
be
modernize
and
those
of
a
pedagogical
character
should
be
limited
to
proper
proportions
.
II
.
In
connection
with
teachers
in
active
service
,
4
.
That
regular
contact
be
maintained
between
high
school
teachers
and
university
professors
,
encouraging
the
former
periodically
to
attend
courses
for
improvement
(
regular
or
special
)
,
and
that
the
means
to
achieve
this
end
,
such
as
scholarships
at
home
or
abroad
,
be
increased
.
5
.
That
steps
be
taken
to
raise
the
socioeconomic
level
of
the
secondary
school
teacher
holding
a
regular
certificate
,
such
as
:
(
a
)
Guarantee
tenure
.
(
b
)
Establish
basic
salaries
equal
to
those
of
other
professions
requiring
similar
or
equivalent
academic
preparation
.
(
c
)
Establish
a
system
of
promotions
with
its
corresponding
implications
(
increase
in
salary
,
reduction
of
working
hours
,
etc
.
)
automatically
based
on
the
number
of
years
of
service
,
considering
supplementary
advantages
and
taking
into
account
publications
and
activities
aimed
at
self
-
improvement
.
(
d
)
Establish
the
sabbatical
year
.
(
e
)
Offer
the
teacher
the
possiblity
of
a
regimen
of
complete
dedication
,
as
a
favorable
condition
necessary
to
his
progress
.
6
.
That
a
maximum
of
incentives
be
assigned
(
scholarships
,
compensation
,
etc
.
)
so
that
the
teachers
of
the
secondary
school
who
are
without
certificate
but
are
in
active
service
can
obtain
one
,
and
therefore
can
be
covered
by
the
system
established
in
article
5
either
by
completing
their
university
studies
or
by
taking
special
courses
created
for
this
purpose
.
III
.
In
connection
with
the
improvement
of
teaching
,
7
.
That
the
realization
of
courses
and
the
creation
of
institutes
of
an
experimental
character
,
for
trying
out
new
texts
and
new
methods
of
teaching
mathematics
,
be
encouraged
.
8
.
To
suggest
to
the
International
Union
of
Mathematicians
,
UNESCO
,
and
the
Organization
of
American
States
,
to
take
under
consideration
the
following
steps
:
(
a
)
The
intensification
of
programs
for
the
training
of
secondary
school
teachers
of
mathematics
.
(
b
)
The
dispersion
of
activities
,
projects
,
and
publications
which
have
to
do
with
the
improvement
and
modernization
of
the
teaching
of
mathematics
.
(
c
)
The
publication
and
distribution
of
reports
,
new
texts
,
and
translations
written
for
teachers
of
the
secondary
schools
for
their
use
in
teaching
and
in
self
-
improvement
.
(
d
)
The
encouragment
of
research
as
an
avenue
for
scientific
and
technological
progress
and
as
a
factor
in
motivating
teaching
.
(
e
)
The
creation
of
an
international
center
for
the
purpose
of
collecting
and
disseminating
information
that
is
relative
to
new
experiments
and
new
ideas
in
mathematics
education
.
9
.
To
promote
a
wide
exchange
of
information
on
new
ideas
in
the
teaching
of
mathematics
in
all
countries
through
national
meetings
and
other
international
conferences
such
as
the
present
one
.
"
THE
FIRST
COMMITTEE
The
most
important
of
the
resolutions
for
our
purposes
in
this
book
were
the
resolution
that
proposed
:
"
The
creation
of
an
Inter
-
American
Commission
on
Mathematics
Education
,
of
a
permanent
character
,
for
the
purpose
of
providing
continuity
to
the
projects
and
ideas
discussed
in
this
Conference
and
to
promote
action
calculated
to
raise
the
level
and
efficiency
of
secondary
school
and
university
teaching
of
mathematics
.
"
It
was
also
recommended
that
:
"
That
delegates
and
participant
establish
and
maintain
contact
with
the
authorities
of
their
respective
countries
,
so
that
effective
measure
can
be
taken
to
put
into
practice
these
recommendations
.
"
The
Conference
,
in
one
of
its
resolutions
,
designated
the
following
individuals
to
act
as
a
pro
tempore
committee
until
the
Interamerican
Mathematics
Education
Commission
was
established
,
according
to
recommendations
in
the
document
:
Marshall
Stone
(
USA
)
President
,
Alberto
González
(
Argentina
)
,
Bernardo
Alfaro
(
Costa
Rica
)
,
Alfredo
Pereira
(
Brazil
)
,
and
José
Tola
(
Peru
)
.
As
can
be
observed
,
the
recommendations
of
this
Conference
were
of
great
importance
because
they
committed
the
delegates
from
each
country
to
the
process
of
reform
.
They
would
be
promoted
on
two
fronts
:
on
the
one
hand
,
the
delegates
would
try
to
get
their
governments
to
reform
the
mathematics
programs
at
the
secondary
level
to
carry
the
stamp
of
modern
mathematics
.
On
the
other
hand
,
they
committed
themselves
to
trying
to
influence
universities
and
teacher
training
institutes
to
do
in
-
service
training
and
to
prepare
new
mathematics
educators
with
the
ideas
of
the
reform
.
The
resolutions
adopted
indicated
the
success
obtained
by
the
organizers
of
the
Conference
,
at
least
in
the
aspect
of
starting
a
machine
for
reform
in
Latin
American
countries
.
Apparently
the
reluctance
shown
in
some
cases
was
smoothed
over
.
From
another
perspective
,
as
can
be
seen
in
the
list
presented
below
of
sponsors
of
the
event
,
that
Conference
had
the
support
of
international
and
other
organizations
,
especially
from
the
United
States
,
which
were
interested
in
having
the
ideas
of
reform
in
mathematics
teaching
realized
in
all
the
countries
of
the
continent
.
This
is
evidence
of
the
great
concern
in
this
matter
from
the
highest
levels
,
and
the
pressure
that
possibly
was
brought
to
bear
so
that
the
recommendations
were
approved
in
the
way
they
were
presented
.
THE
SECOND
CONFERENCE
The
Second
Interamerican
Conference
on
Mathematics
Education
was
held
in
Lima
,
Peru
,
December
5
-
12
,
1966
.
That
is
,
five
years
after
the
First
Conference
was
held
in
Bogotá
.
If
the
First
Conference
served
to
promote
the
introduction
of
the
teaching
of
modern
mathematics
in
American
countries
,
the
second
one
had
as
its
main
axis
the
analysis
of
the
progress
of
reform
.
That
focus
was
declared
in
the
opening
address
by
Marshall
Stone
.
Besides
the
invited
speakers
who
presented
general
topics
related
to
mathematics
teaching
,
the
Organizing
Committee
of
that
Conference
asked
the
delegates
from
each
of
the
participating
countries
to
present
a
report
in
which
they
summarized
the
efforts
realized
in
their
countries
during
the
period
between
the
two
Conferences
towards
the
objectives
outlined
in
the
First
Conference
.
In
his
opening
address
,
Dr
.
Stone
recognized
the
scope
of
the
problem
of
teaching
mathematics
,
as
well
as
the
difficulty
of
solving
it
in
a
practical
manner
.
However
,
at
the
same
time
,
he
indicated
that
the
Organizing
Committee
selected
a
restricted
number
of
topics
so
that
they
could
be
discussed
throughout
all
the
activities
.
THE
MAIN
TOPICS
The
theme
to
be
studied
in
the
Conference
was
posed
in
the
following
form
:
"
In
the
first
place
,
it
is
natural
that
we
wish
to
review
what
has
taken
place
in
the
hemisphere
since
the
first
Inter
-
American
Conference
on
Mathematical
Education
,
held
almost
exactly
five
years
ago
,
in
Bogota
,
Colombia
.
We
must
now
ask
:
"
What
had
the
report
of
that
conference
to
do
with
what
has
taken
place
in
the
last
five
years
?
Have
its
recommendations
had
any
influence
at
all
?
Have
some
of
them
proved
to
be
less
practical
than
we
had
supposed
at
the
time
when
we
formulated
them
?
In
which
countries
has
progress
been
most
marked
?
In
which
countries
have
especially
difficult
problems
been
conquered
?
"
So
we
should
now
look
back
on
these
five
years
and
,
through
the
medium
of
a
number
of
reports
,
and
the
discussion
of
them
,
try
to
see
what
the
impact
of
the
first
conference
has
been
and
what
we
have
succeeded
in
accomplishing
all
over
the
hemisphere
during
that
time
"
[
vi
]
.
Two
topics
of
great
importance
were
also
proposed
:
in
the
first
place
,
the
problem
that
students
face
in
moving
from
secondary
schools
to
the
universities
,
and
,
secondly
,
the
preparation
of
teachers
for
the
primary
and
secondary
levels
.
In
the
first
of
these
topics
,
the
difficulties
that
students
face
when
going
to
a
higher
level
of
education
were
recognized
.
Generally
deficient
preparation
causes
many
difficulties
in
adapting
to
the
new
styles
of
teaching
that
are
present
in
higher
education
.
The
second
topic
was
recognized
to
be
of
great
importance
in
order
to
have
success
in
any
attempt
to
reform
the
teaching
of
mathematics
.
Thus
,
the
tasks
of
the
Second
Conference
were
dedicated
to
the
following
three
topics
:
1
.
To
review
what
has
taken
place
in
the
hemisphere
since
the
first
Inter
-
American
Conference
on
Mathematics
Education
.
2
.
The
problem
posed
by
the
students
’
passage
from
the
secondary
school
into
the
university
.
3
.
Preparation
of
teachers
for
service
in
the
primary
and
secondary
schools
.
The
presentations
were
on
those
topics
,
and
,
also
,
on
the
problems
that
were
arising
in
the
implementation
of
the
reform
of
mathematics
teaching
in
the
various
countries
of
Latin
America
.
The
presentations
were
divided
into
four
blocks
:
A
.
On
Problems
in
Mathematical
Education
in
Latin
America
.
B
.
On
Mathematics
Improvement
.
C
.
On
Curriculum
and
Transition
.
D
.
On
Teacher
Education
.
Within
the
topic
dealt
with
in
Block
A
,
various
problems
were
indicated
.
Some
of
them
were
related
to
the
sociocultural
and
economic
characteristics
of
the
Latin
American
countries
.
Others
were
more
specific
to
bringing
about
a
reform
.
Professor
Rafael
Laguardia
of
Uruguay
made
several
observations
about
the
first
type
of
problems
in
his
address
.
His
conclusions
indicated
the
existence
of
several
obstacles
that
impeded
the
development
of
mathematics
and
other
basic
sciences
in
Latin
America
.
In
particular
,
he
highlighted
two
elements
:
the
illiteracy
that
existed
in
almost
all
Latin
American
countries
,
and
the
rapid
population
growth
that
obliged
the
use
of
teachers
without
the
necessary
preparation
in
the
teaching
of
mathematics
.
Thus
,
he
proposed
that
the
reform
should
be
initiated
,
at
least
in
his
country
,
only
in
the
higher
levels
of
secondary
education
and
that
the
universities
should
actively
participate
in
the
reform
process
.
He
added
that
not
only
was
the
participation
of
educational
researchers
necessary
,
but
also
that
of
mathematics
researchers
.
To
all
of
that
Laguardia
added
the
need
for
centers
of
scientific
research
and
higher
education
to
collaborate
closely
with
the
reform
in
mathematics
teaching
.
With
respect
to
the
progress
of
the
reform
in
mathematics
teaching
and
possible
solutions
,
Professor
Luis
Santaló
referred
to
some
of
the
problems
that
the
reform
had
encountered
in
Latin
America
,
specifically
with
teachers
and
programs
.
He
identified
a
series
of
problems
that
had
occurred
during
the
reform
process
,
some
of
which
he
said
had
been
foreseeable
and
others
,
perhaps
unexpected
,
that
had
arisen
during
the
process
.
Given
the
historical
importance
of
Professor
Santaló
in
mathematics
in
the
Americas
,
it
is
interesting
to
mention
with
some
detail
the
problems
he
referred
to
:
-
Difficulties
in
convincing
teachers
of
the
need
and
possibility
of
reform
.
To
overcome
that
difficulty
he
proposed
some
measures
such
as
:
convincing
teachers
about
the
recommendations
of
the
meeting
and
congresses
that
had
been
held
on
the
matter
,
the
extensive
use
of
modern
mathematics
in
university
level
texts
,
the
temporary
displacement
of
the
classic
programs
of
mathematics
,
a
great
part
of
the
mathematics
being
taught
should
be
taken
out
of
official
programs
.
On
the
other
hand
,
he
proposed
that
teachers
do
a
survey
that
would
let
them
know
that
many
of
the
topics
that
they
had
been
teaching
were
never
used
,
thus
there
was
no
practical
argument
to
retain
those
topics
.
To
determine
the
formative
value
of
such
topics
,
they
should
be
analyzed
in
terms
of
reasoning
as
opposed
to
routine
,
and
then
compared
with
modern
topics
.
-
A
second
problem
was
convincing
parents
,
i
.
e
.
the
problem
of
convincing
public
opinion
.
Here
Santaló
proposed
that
applications
of
mathematics
not
be
lost
from
view
,
but
used
to
motivate
some
of
the
modern
topics
in
connection
with
science
.
-
Another
problem
was
the
preparation
of
teachers
and
student
textbooks
.
He
proposed
the
introduction
of
modern
mathematics
into
teacher
training
institutes
so
that
their
graduates
would
be
able
to
teach
reform
-
based
programs
.
He
also
proposed
in
-
service
teacher
training
.
With
respect
to
textbooks
he
considered
that
the
only
way
to
resolve
the
situation
was
to
publish
student
textbooks
with
a
modern
mathematics
focus
.
-
The
last
of
the
problems
identified
by
Santaló
referred
to
the
difficulty
of
changing
Ministry
of
Public
Education
regulations
in
the
Latin
American
countries
.
That
increased
the
difficulty
of
having
experiences
with
the
new
programs
.
He
pointed
out
,
as
his
last
point
,
an
aspect
to
which
he
did
not
give
much
importance
:
teachers
who
did
not
understand
very
well
what
was
intended
by
the
reform
and
,
with
enthusiasm
,
taught
their
courses
"
full
of
trivialities
,
and
conceptual
errors
,
sowing
general
confusion
"
.
The
address
of
the
Peruvian
professor
,
José
Tola
,
considered
the
problem
of
the
development
of
mathematical
research
in
Latin
America
.
He
felt
that
much
had
been
done
in
the
area
since
1961
and
therefore
mathematicians
were
busy
with
research
and
were
not
available
to
work
on
carrying
out
the
reform
.
He
concluded
by
calling
for
the
creation
of
the
conditions
necessary
for
the
preparation
of
mathematicians
and
mathematics
researchers
who
could
serve
as
support
for
the
reform
in
mathematics
teaching
.
In
that
respect
he
recommended
:
increasing
the
number
of
candidates
and
improving
selection
procedures
;
strengthening
schools
of
mathematics
in
the
universities
,
sending
many
students
abroad
for
study
;
and
insuring
adequate
conditions
when
graduates
of
foreign
universities
returned
to
their
countries
of
origin
.
In
relation
to
the
topic
of
the
progress
in
Mathematics
Teaching
,
four
addresses
were
given
.
Three
of
them
reported
on
the
progress
made
in
the
reform
of
mathematics
teaching
in
a
few
countries
(
Spain
,
Chile
and
Brazil
)
,
and
the
fourth
discussed
activities
of
the
OAS
with
respect
to
Mathematics
.
Professor
Pedro
Abellanas
presented
some
of
the
progress
in
the
reform
of
mathematics
teaching
in
Spain
.
He
mentioned
holding
annual
meetings
,
since
1960
,
with
secondary
school
teachers
and
university
professors
,
in
which
there
were
discussions
on
teaching
modern
mathematics
.
As
a
result
,
various
studies
were
carried
out
and
thus
the
program
in
the
Licenciatura
in
Mathematics
had
been
modified
.
He
reflected
on
the
importance
of
the
teaching
of
secondary
mathematics
,
especially
in
its
formative
aspects
.
He
indicated
that
several
courses
had
been
organized
for
mathematics
teachers
which
treated
topics
such
as
proportions
,
similarity
,
measurement
,
natural
numbers
,
whole
numbers
,
rational
numbers
,
polynomials
,
irrational
expressions
,
etc
.
Later
he
proposed
a
mathematics
program
for
each
year
of
secondary
education
.
In
his
address
,
Professor
César
Abuauad
presented
some
of
the
progress
in
mathematics
in
Chile
.
He
mentioned
some
positive
aspects
such
as
:
the
wide
diffusion
of
the
recommendations
from
the
Conference
in
Bogotá
,
the
work
of
the
SMSG
group
,
and
the
close
contacts
with
the
"
spirit
of
renewal
in
Europe
"
.
He
also
provided
a
list
of
the
steps
that
had
been
taken
since
1962
[
vii
]
.
Professor
Osvaldo
Sangiorgi
gave
information
on
some
of
the
progress
in
mathematics
teaching
in
Brazil
:
more
unity
among
the
universities
,
institutes
and
other
groups
;
increased
cooperation
among
university
mathematicians
and
secondary
school
teachers
;
creation
of
new
mathematics
departments
in
various
universities
;
increase
in
the
number
of
teacher
training
centers
;
extraordinary
increase
in
the
number
of
teachers
taking
in
-
service
courses
in
mathematics
;
increase
in
the
number
of
secondary
teachers
with
university
degrees
;
realization
of
congresses
,
colloquia
,
and
other
activities
dedicated
to
the
teaching
of
mathematics
.
In
conclusion
he
presented
the
new
program
that
was
being
developed
for
secondary
schools
in
Brazil
.
Andrés
Valeiras
,
representative
from
the
OAS
,
presented
the
contributions
of
the
OAS
in
improving
the
teaching
of
mathematics
.
The
Department
of
Scientific
Affairs
increased
its
technical
assistance
activities
to
achieve
the
following
objectives
:
a
.
Aid
to
Ministries
of
Education
in
their
tasks
of
modernizing
the
curriculum
.
b
.
Aid
to
Ministries
of
Education
and
schools
in
offering
training
for
in
-
service
teachers
and
in
modernizing
the
teacher
training
curriculum
.
c
.
Aid
to
encourage
research
[
viii
]
.
That
report
made
it
very
clear
that
the
OAS
had
participated
significantly
in
the
reform
of
mathematics
in
Latin
America
.
Among
the
activities
were
the
establishment
of
summer
institutes
,
interchange
of
scientists
,
meetings
,
scholarships
,
studies
on
the
teaching
of
science
and
engineering
,
and
various
publications
.
It
is
worthwhile
to
gave
some
details
on
what
was
developed
:
Scholarship
Program
.
Scholarships
for
citizens
of
member
nations
for
high
level
studies
in
other
American
nations
.
Programs
of
Direct
Technical
Assistance
.
Visits
from
expert
consultants
.
Exchange
Programs
.
Financing
of
visiting
professors
in
universities
in
the
member
nations
.
Program
of
Integrated
Projects
.
Initiatives
planned
to
give
training
,
technical
assistance
,
equipment
,
etc
.
to
institutions
,
universities
,
etc
.
in
Latin
America
.
Technical
Cooperation
Program
.
Training
of
personnel
.
Special
Programs
:
Annual
summer
institutes
in
the
USA
.
Summer
institutes
in
Latin
America
.
Regional
meetings
.
The
Study
on
the
Teaching
of
Science
and
Engineering
in
Latin
America
.
A
Guide
to
Scientists
and
Scientific
Institutions
.
Publications
.
In
Block
C
,
new
curricula
,
as
well
as
an
analysis
of
the
state
of
reform
in
each
country
were
presented
.
In
this
context
the
following
individuals
related
their
experiences
:
Howard
Fehr
(
USA
)
,
Carlos
Imaz
(
Mexico
)
,
Erik
Kristensen
(
Denmark
)
,
Eugene
Northrup
of
the
Ford
Foundation
(
Turkey
)
,
Georges
Papy
(
Belgium
)
,
Andrés
Revus
(
France
)
and
Eduardo
Suger
Cofiño
(
Guatemala
)
.
In
each
case
there
was
talk
about
the
way
in
which
proposals
for
the
implementation
of
modern
mathematics
at
both
the
pre
-
university
and
university
levels
were
being
carried
out
.
The
diversity
of
the
countries
represented
in
the
presentations
denoted
the
interest
in
propagandizing
the
worldwide
nature
of
such
reform
and
the
need
to
know
how
it
was
being
carried
out
in
other
latitudes
.
In
Block
D
,
dedicated
to
the
preparation
of
teachers
(
achievements
and
difficulties
in
various
countries
)
,
there
was
participation
from
Mariano
García
(
Puerto
Rico
)
,
Martha
María
de
Souza
Dantas
(
Brazil
)
,
Hans
-
Georg
Steiner
(
Germany
)
,
and
Luis
Santaló
and
Renato
Völker
(
Argentina
)
.
Here
the
particular
experiences
of
each
country
were
presented
.
NATIONAL
REPORTS
A
second
part
of
the
Conference
,
which
was
very
important
to
its
objectives
,
was
dedicated
to
reports
from
the
various
participating
countries
concerning
the
progress
of
reform
.
A
total
of
22
delegations
presented
their
reports
:
Argentina
,
Bolivia
,
Brazil
,
Canada
,
Chile
,
Colombia
,
Costa
Rica
,
Dominican
Republic
,
Ecuador
,
El
Salvador
,
Haiti
,
Jamaica
,
Mexico
,
Nicaragua
,
Panama
,
Paraguay
,
Peru
,
Puerto
Rico
,
Trinidad
and
Tobago
,
United
States
,
Uruguay
,
and
Venezuela
.
It
is
interested
to
point
out
that
a
caution
was
given
that
the
reports
were
"
informal
"
in
the
sense
that
they
were
not
given
by
officials
from
the
governments
,
but
were
simply
the
appraisals
of
the
participants
of
each
country
.
Some
countries
showed
more
progress
in
the
process
than
others
.
For
example
,
from
the
reports
of
Argentina
,
Brazil
,
Canada
,
and
the
USA
it
is
obvious
that
the
process
began
with
various
aspects
of
reform
,
including
profound
changes
in
the
contents
of
secondary
and
university
mathematics
programs
,
using
new
approaches
to
the
pre
-
service
and
in
-
service
teacher
education
.
In
other
countries
,
such
as
Chile
and
Costa
Rica
,
new
mathematics
programs
were
promoted
in
all
secondary
schools
.
In
some
other
countries
such
programs
were
beginning
to
be
used
in
just
a
few
institutions
as
a
pilot
project
,
such
as
was
the
case
in
Ecuador
.
Thus
,
the
majority
of
the
countries
reported
making
at
least
some
attempts
to
introduce
changes
.
Nevertheless
,
there
were
some
countries
,
such
as
Bolivia
,
in
which
it
had
not
been
possible
to
implement
any
changes
.
In
general
,
partial
or
total
changes
were
carried
out
at
the
secondary
level
;
in
some
cases
there
were
changes
in
teacher
preparation
programs
;
and
in
many
there
had
been
training
sessions
for
teachers
.
Something
important
:
there
was
an
effort
in
most
countries
to
produce
their
own
textbooks
,
following
the
guidelines
for
teaching
modern
mathematics
in
accordance
with
the
directives
of
the
First
Conference
.
It
should
be
mentioned
,
however
,
that
the
majority
of
the
delegates
talked
about
the
problems
that
they
had
encountered
.
In
general
,
those
problems
were
common
in
most
countries
,
such
as
the
difficulty
in
pre
-
service
and
in
-
service
teacher
training
,
and
the
slight
possibilities
to
carry
out
the
reform
with
success
(
at
least
in
the
short
term
)
in
every
country
,
because
of
a
shortage
of
both
human
and
economic
resources
.
In
many
of
the
countries
teacher
preparation
was
deficient
.
The
expansion
of
the
educational
system
was
such
that
in
many
of
the
countries
many
of
the
teachers
that
taught
mathematics
had
an
inadequate
preparation
,
or
,
in
many
cases
,
none
at
all
.
It
can
be
said
that
this
was
perhaps
the
main
problem
encountered
in
the
reform
process
.
THE
CONCLUSIONS
OF
THE
CONFERENCE
One
of
the
important
parts
of
the
conference
was
a
section
of
conclusions
in
which
goals
were
proposed
for
continuing
the
reform
of
mathematics
teaching
in
the
American
countries
.
During
the
period
from
1961
to
1966
the
pro
tempore
committee
that
had
been
elected
in
the
Bogotá
Conference
functioned
as
the
executive
committee
of
the
Interamerican
Committee
on
Mathematics
Education
(
IACME
)
.
That
committee
had
some
difficulties
,
mainly
economic
,
in
functioning
efficiently
.
Those
difficulties
permitted
the
committee
to
meet
only
occasionally
.
Therefore
in
the
Lima
Conference
some
basic
norms
were
proposed
that
would
permit
the
Committee
to
function
more
efficiently
.
The
norms
that
were
approved
in
the
closing
session
on
the
12th
of
December
of
1966
were
:
"
A
.
The
Inter
-
American
Committee
on
Mathematical
Education
(
IACME
)
originitating
in
the
First
Inter
-
American
Conference
on
Mathematical
Education
,
December
4
-
9
,
1961
,
is
a
non
-
govenmental
body
affiliated
with
the
International
Union
of
Mathematicians
through
the
International
Commission
on
Mathematical
Instruction
.
The
purposes
of
the
Committee
are
to
serve
as
a
technical
organ
in
the
sense
of
,
and
the
scope
of
,
the
recommendations
made
at
the
Conference
cited
above
and
at
the
Second
Inter
-
American
Conference
on
Mathematical
Education
held
at
Lima
,
December
4
-
12
,
1966
.
B
.
In
accordance
with
the
decisions
of
the
Lima
Conference
,
the
composition
of
the
Committee
,
until
the
next
conference
is
held
,
shall
be
:
Marshall
H
.
Stone
,
U
.
S
.
A
.
,
President
Cesar
Abuauad
,
Chile
Ricardo
Losada
,
Colombia
Manuel
Meda
,
Mexico
Leopoldo
Nachbin
,
Brazil
Luis
A
.
Santalo
,
Argentina
Juan
Jorge
Schaffer
,
Uruguay
Egardo
Sevilla
,
Honduras
Jose
Tola
A
.
,
Peru
The
Committee
will
assign
to
its
members
the
duties
of
vice
president
,
secretary
,
and
such
other
offices
that
are
deemed
necessary
.
Likewise
it
is
given
authority
to
designate
replacements
in
cases
of
retirement
.
C
.
Committee
membership
will
require
annual
minimum
dues
of
$
100
per
country
,
paid
by
a
body
or
organization
which
(
in
the
judgment
of
the
Committee
)
would
be
representative
of
the
activities
which
they
promote
in
the
respective
countries
.
D
.
The
Committee
will
solicit
the
support
of
organizations
and
bodies
,
which
by
their
character
and
goals
,
correspond
to
the
objectives
of
the
Committee
and
the
activities
which
it
advocates
"
[
ix
]
.
The
recommendations
were
sent
to
the
Ministries
of
Education
,
universities
,
and
educational
institutions
in
each
country
,
as
well
as
international
organizations
such
as
the
OAS
and
UNESCO
other
institutions
related
to
mathematics
teaching
and
research
.
The
recommendations
were
divided
into
five
parts
which
are
summarized
below
:
I
.
Secondary
school
curriculum
.
Here
topics
were
proposed
globally
for
the
curriculum
.
They
are
outlined
below
:
For
youths
12
to
15
years
old
:
Sets
,
relations
,
whole
numbers
,
binary
operations
,
introduction
of
the
axioms
of
geometry
,
introduction
to
rational
and
real
numbers
,
vector
space
of
the
plane
,
coordinates
,
ways
of
representing
functions
,
metric
geometry
of
the
plane
,
scalar
product
,
analytic
geometry
in
orthogonal
bases
,
systems
of
linear
equations
.
For
youths
15
to
18
years
old
:
study
of
real
numbers
,
Euclidean
space
,
orthogonal
bases
,
Cauchy
-
Schwartz
inequality
,
linear
transformations
of
the
plane
,
complex
numbers
,
trigonometry
,
combinatoric
analysis
,
the
Euclidean
algorithm
,
polynomials
,
some
topological
concepts
,
continuous
functions
,
limits
,
sequences
,
derivatives
,
integration
,
special
elementary
functions
,
determinants
,
three
-
dimensional
geometry
,
elementary
probability
and
statistics
.
Also
,
the
following
observations
were
added
about
the
programs
:
a
)
Advisability
of
first
experimenting
in
pilot
courses
.
b
)
Put
the
topics
in
an
appropriate
order
.
c
)
The
program
was
an
academic
secondary
education
and
should
be
modified
for
technical
and
commercial
schools
.
d
)
It
is
necessary
for
primary
schools
to
prepare
students
for
this
program
.
It
was
also
proposed
that
studies
be
carried
out
in
various
countries
to
try
to
determine
the
results
obtained
in
trials
of
the
program
,
and
that
the
programs
be
adapted
for
engineers
and
other
applied
fields
.
Other
resolutions
.
II
.
The
preparation
of
mathematics
teachers
for
secondary
schools
and
the
first
years
of
university
.
It
was
most
important
to
solicit
the
collaboration
of
the
universities
in
this
process
.
Also
it
was
requested
that
formal
agreements
of
collaboration
be
arranged
among
universities
and
that
there
be
efforts
to
prepare
more
and
better
teachers
.
III
.
In
-
service
training
of
teachers
.
Courses
and
other
professional
development
activities
should
be
intensified
and
,
to
the
extent
possible
,
permanent
teacher
training
centers
should
be
established
.
IV
.
Preparation
of
textbooks
and
other
bibliographic
materials
.
Great
efforts
should
be
made
to
try
to
publish
monographs
,
student
textbooks
,
public
information
pamphlets
,
pedagogical
bulletins
,
a
Latin
American
journal
.
V
.
Various
matters
.
IACME
was
charged
with
aiding
in
the
formation
of
local
committees
in
each
country
;
developing
and
disseminating
a
guide
to
Latin
American
institutions
that
offered
high
level
programs
in
the
field
of
mathematics
;
organizing
periodic
national
meetings
;
organizing
periodically
national
and
regional
colloquia
to
provide
intensive
courses
on
special
topics
;
convening
seminars
on
mathematical
topics
and
on
problems
with
teaching
,
and
in
which
short
communications
on
research
projects
could
be
presented
and
discussed
.
National
societies
of
mathematics
,
in
which
secondary
and
university
teachers
take
part
,
should
be
organized
in
order
to
promote
the
development
of
mathematics
.
As
can
be
deduced
from
the
above
summary
,
there
was
still
interest
in
continuing
to
reform
the
teaching
of
mathematics
in
the
American
countries
.
There
was
also
interest
in
continuing
that
reform
along
the
same
lines
,
that
is
,
introducing
"
modern
mathematics
"
into
secondary
education
and
teacher
preparation
programs
.
The
recommendations
are
very
clear
in
that
sense
.
They
are
even
more
specific
than
the
recommendations
of
the
Bogotá
Conference
given
that
in
this
meeting
there
was
even
given
,
with
a
certain
amount
of
detail
,
the
topics
that
were
to
be
taught
in
secondary
schools
.
This
Conference
exhibited
a
fundamental
difference
with
respect
to
the
First
.
In
the
Bogotá
Conference
general
ideas
about
modern
mathematics
were
expressed
,
with
an
explanation
of
why
it
was
important
to
introduce
it
into
secondary
schools
and
stressing
the
importance
of
involving
all
countries
in
the
change
.
In
some
way
modern
mathematics
was
defined
,
its
main
topics
were
mentioned
,
as
well
as
an
explanation
of
the
new
topics
were
related
.
Finally
,
there
was
an
attempt
to
convince
the
participants
of
the
advantages
of
carrying
out
the
reform
.
On
the
other
hand
,
in
the
Lima
Conference
it
was
assumed
that
countries
were
already
involved
,
in
one
way
or
another
,
in
the
reform
and
therefore
reports
were
solicited
.
The
addresses
were
on
topics
of
a
more
operational
nature
,
and
not
so
much
about
the
great
ideas
of
the
reform
,
but
instead
how
certain
processes
were
being
carried
out
in
places
that
had
been
able
to
advance
the
most
,
especially
in
that
particularly
difficult
topic
:
the
pre
-
service
and
in
-
service
development
of
teachers
.
These
differences
,
however
,
are
quite
logical
if
we
keep
in
mind
that
they
represent
parts
of
the
same
process
.
MARSHALL
STONE
This
brief
description
would
not
be
complete
without
emphasizing
the
figure
of
Marshall
Stone
,
the
driving
force
behind
the
creation
of
IACME
.
Marshall
Harvey
Stone
was
born
in
New
York
on
the
8th
of
April
of
1903
.
He
was
16
when
he
entered
Harvard
and
graduated
summa
cum
laude
in
1922
.
Before
being
a
professor
at
Harvard
from
1933
to
1946
,
he
was
a
professor
at
Columbia
(
1925
-
1927
)
,
Harvard
(
1929
-
1931
)
,
Yale
(
1931
-
1933
)
and
Stanford
in
the
summer
of
1933
.
Although
a
Harvard
graduate
and
professor
,
he
is
best
known
for
having
converted
the
Mathematics
Department
of
the
University
of
Chicago
,
as
its
Chair
,
into
one
of
the
main
mathematical
centers
in
the
world
.
He
achieved
that
by
contracting
famous
mathematicians
,
such
as
Andre
Weil
,
S
.
S
.
Chern
,
Antoni
Zygmond
,
Saunders
MacLane
,
and
Adrian
Albert
[
x
]
.
Paul
Halmos
,
Irving
Seal
,
and
Edwin
Spanier
[
xi
]
were
also
contracted
during
the
same
period
.
According
to
Saunders
MacLane
,
the
Mathematics
Department
that
Stone
created
was
at
that
time
"
without
a
doubt
the
leading
Mathematics
Department
in
the
country
"
[
xii
]
,
and
probably
,
we
should
add
,
in
the
world
.
The
scientific
achievements
of
Stone
were
many
.
When
he
arrived
in
Chicago
in
1946
,
upon
recommendation
to
the
President
of
the
University
of
Chicago
by
John
von
Neumann
,
he
had
already
completed
important
works
in
various
areas
of
mathematics
:
the
spectral
theory
of
adjoint
operators
in
Hilbert
space
,
and
on
the
algebraic
properties
of
boolean
algebras
in
the
study
of
rings
of
continuous
functions
.
He
is
known
for
the
famous
Stone
-
Weierstrass
Theorem
,
as
well
as
for
the
Stone
-
Cech
compactification
.
His
most
influential
book
was
Linear
Transformations
in
Hilbert
Space
and
their
Applications
to
Analysis
.
He
was
elected
member
of
the
National
Academy
of
Sciences
of
the
USA
in
1938
,
at
the
age
of
only
35
.
He
was
President
of
the
American
Mathematical
Society
from
1943
-
1944
.
Although
an
International
Mathematical
Union
(
IMU
)
had
formally
existed
since
the
turn
of
the
century
,
Stone
renewed
it
,
actually
recreating
it
in
the
Rome
Assembly
in
1952
.
Stone
was
the
first
President
of
the
new
Union
from
1952
to
1954
.
He
was
a
member
of
the
International
Commission
on
Mathematical
Instruction
(
ICMI
)
from
1959
to
1962
and
of
the
International
Council
of
Scientific
Unions
(
ICSU
)
.
Stone
had
a
strong
personality
and
exhibited
an
extraordinary
charisma
that
permitted
him
to
achieve
his
objectives
in
the
University
of
Chicago
,
and
,
also
exercise
a
powerful
influence
over
the
international
mathematics
community
.
It
should
be
mentioned
,
especially
,
that
Stone
had
a
great
liking
for
Latin
America
.
Many
students
from
Latin
America
directly
benefitted
from
him
(
among
them
,
Prof
.
José
Joaquin
Trejos
Fernández
,
who
was
President
of
Costa
Rica
from
1966
to
1970
)
[
xiii
]
.
The
best
indication
of
his
appreciation
of
the
region
was
,
nevertheless
,
his
decisive
involvement
in
building
and
sustaining
IACME
during
so
many
years
(
as
its
President
from
1961
to
1972
)
.
Finally
,
it
should
be
mentioned
that
Prof
.
Stone
was
very
much
influenced
by
the
ideas
in
the
research
and
teaching
of
the
Bourbaki
group
[
xiv
]
.
He
adopted
many
of
the
orientations
of
that
group
with
respect
to
the
axiomatic
and
abstract
foundations
of
Mathematics
and
Mathematics
Education
.
One
indication
of
the
close
relationship
between
Stone
and
the
Bourbaki
group
was
the
presence
of
in
Chicago
of
Andre
Weil
,
who
was
for
many
years
the
dominant
figure
of
the
group
and
one
of
the
most
brilliant
mathematics
researchers
at
the
time
.
Weil
was
in
Chicago
from
1947
to
1958
.
The
strong
reputation
of
Dr
.
Stone
in
the
world
mathematics
community
explains
the
international
support
that
IACME
had
in
its
beginnings
.
In
1983
President
Reagan
presented
Professor
Stone
with
the
most
prestigious
scientific
award
in
that
country
:
the
National
Medal
of
Science
for
his
synthesis
of
analysis
,
algebra
and
topology
.
Professor
Stone
died
on
the
8th
of
January
of
1989
in
Madras
,
India
.
His
imprint
on
the
world
of
mathematics
was
profound
and
lasting
,
but
,
we
should
also
emphasize
that
he
had
a
very
special
impact
in
Latin
America
.
IACME
and
the
mathematics
teachers
of
this
region
can
never
forget
nor
fail
to
recognize
the
invaluable
support
,
so
frank
and
unselfish
,
that
Professor
Stone
gave
us
for
the
development
of
our
discipline
.
DATA
FROM
THE
FIRST
CONFERENCE
Given
the
importance
of
the
first
conference
,
it
is
interesting
to
take
a
look
at
some
of
the
details
of
the
program
,
the
organization
,
and
the
sponsorship
of
the
event
.
Interview
given
by
Zé
Celso
Martinez
Correa
Media
:
Rádio
Cultura
AM
Reporter
:
Marilú
Cabañas
Date
:
January
24th
,
2005
PRESENT
SITUATION
OF
THE
STADIUM
THEATRE
PROJECT
Marilú
:
Zé
Celso
,
we
have
been
following
the
trajectory
of
your
struggle
with
the
Silvio
Santos
Group
,
and
it
has
been
-
as
far
as
I
'
ve
been
able
to
see
-
a
very
exciting
struggle
,
which
have
shown
that
you
are
a
very
persistent
person
,
that
you
have
guts
,
that
you
are
fully
committed
in
defending
the
Oficina
Theatre
.
What
has
happened
now
-
we
have
read
something
in
the
newspapers
,
what
are
the
facts
?
Have
you
already
come
to
a
satisfactory
agreement
,
or
is
there
still
a
way
to
go
?
What
is
the
situation
today
?
Zé
:
It
'
s
a
struggle
on
behalf
of
the
Oficina
and
the
Bixiga
district
,
and
it
'
s
also
a
fight
against
the
thirst
of
property
speculation
which
devastates
the
cities
,
above
all
a
city
like
São
Paulo
,
which
is
perhaps
the
city
most
severely
devastated
by
property
speculation
.
So
it
'
s
a
fight
on
behalf
of
the
district
and
of
the
theatre
which
has
an
universal
character
.
And
this
fight
-
with
the
visit
of
Silvio
Santos
,
we
could
see
that
a
big
change
has
happened
after
25
years
,
because
now
Silvio
Santos
was
able
to
perceive
things
which
the
Group
Silvio
Santos
has
not
been
able
to
see
for
many
years
,
even
in
audiences
at
courts
on
environmental
issues
.
Silvio
Santos
was
here
and
he
saw
the
grandiosity
of
the
theatre
.
He
said
he
had
never
entered
this
space
because
he
thought
it
was
very
small
,
and
he
was
surprised
to
see
how
big
it
is
,
its
height
,
its
mobile
roof
.
And
he
was
surprised
by
the
way
he
was
welcomed
.
He
showed
an
extraordinary
interest
.
I
couldexplain
the
project
in
clear
terms
to
him
and
I
feel
he
has
understood
its
dimensions
,
not
only
regarding
the
district
,
but
also
the
international
dimensions
of
the
project
.
After
that
they
hired
these
architects
,
who
are
very
good
indeed
,
they
have
worked
with
Lina
[
Lina
Bo
Bardi
she
was
an
internationally
famous
architect
and
died
a
few
years
ago
]
.
One
of
them
is
Marcelo
Suzuki
,
who
had
made
the
first
drawings
of
the
stadium
theatre
together
with
Lina
,
before
Silvio
Santos
even
began
to
think
of
buying
the
Oficina
.
Well
,
they
started
to
set
up
the
project
.
They
are
working
together
with
the
Silvio
Santos
Group
and
obviously
now
there
is
the
strong
pressure
of
speculation
,
because
each
millimetre
and
each
centimetre
has
to
be
discussed
in
terms
of
profitability
,
a
short
-
term
profitability
.
I
think
this
project
will
become
either
a
rather
conventional
project
or
a
project
of
great
importance
for
the
whole
world
.
It
not
only
will
be
a
postal
card
for
the
city
,
but
also
a
place
in
the
world
which
will
prove
that
it
'
s
possible
to
overcome
determinations
and
fatalities
imposed
on
big
cities
by
property
speculation
.
And
it
could
really
become
an
example
of
beauty
,
a
point
of
attraction
in
the
world
.
But
considering
the
first
meeting
I
had
last
week
,
it
may
also
remain
a
mediocre
thing
.
This
meeting
has
been
recorded
and
we
will
put
it
in
our
Web
site
.
And
we
want
to
open
up
our
Web
site
to
discussions
.
It
was
a
meeting
of
heated
discussions
,
and
right
from
the
beginning
there
were
many
things
I
didn
t
agree
with
,
and
others
I
did
agree
with
.
And
it
ended
with
the
unanimous
decision
to
set
up
a
kind
of
council
.
We
gathered
people
like
Modesto
Carvalhosa
,
our
lawyer
,
and
Contardo
Calligaris
,
and
the
whole
Oficina
ensemble
,
including
Bete
Milan
.
The
other
day
we
hadthe
participation
of
Eduardo
Suplicy
[
Senator
of
the
Brazilian
Republic
]
.
All
these
people
are
following
up
our
project
,
and
in
the
end
it
was
unanimously
decided
to
submit
the
project
to
the
municipality
for
approval
on
January
31th
.
But
it
s
going
to
be
only
an
approval
of
the
volumetric
analysis
,
not
a
definitive
approval
.
I
decided
to
agree
based
on
trust
-
trust
in
two
things
:
first
,
in
the
feeling
of
mutual
confidence
which
Silvio
Santos
has
transmitted
to
me
and
the
understanding
I
think
he
now
has
got
for
the
project
,
and
second
,
in
the
support
the
project
has
gained
from
a
good
part
of
the
public
opinion
.
THE
STRUGGLE
WITH
THE
LOGIC
OF
THE
CAPITAL
THE
CREATION
OF
A
NEW
CAPITAL
Presently
there
are
discussions
going
on
within
the
public
opinion
.
First
,
there
were
some
news
in
the
press
,
one
article
in
the
Estado
de
São
Paulo
and
two
articles
in
the
Folha
de
São
Paulo
.
At
Folha
,
the
subject
was
published
on
the
cover
,
together
with
a
drawing
,
and
this
has
led
to
a
huge
polemic
.
In
a
sense
I
find
this
polemic
very
interesting
.
There
is
something
ingenuous
about
it
,
on
the
part
of
those
who
are
not
in
midst
of
the
fire
,
who
are
not
involved
in
the
fighting
.
It
s
a
harsher
fight
than
if
you
were
in
Israel
or
in
Palestine
.
The
fight
with
the
capital
is
very
difficult
not
in
regard
to
the
people
,
to
the
capitalists
,
but
in
regard
to
the
own
logic
of
the
capital
.
It
s
very
hard
for
you
to
convince
others
that
the
capital
is
not
so
important
from
the
economic
point
of
view
and
in
terms
of
immediate
profitability
important
is
what
the
capital
will
mean
in
the
long
run
.
I
have
the
impression
that
if
things
turn
out
the
way
I
intend
,
as
the
Oficina
intends
,
as
Lina
intended
,
this
will
have
an
importance
as
great
as
the
Uffizi
museum
of
Florence
had
the
Uffizi
museum
,
which
means
the
museum
of
the
oficina
[
workshop
in
Portuguese
]
and
which
was
given
to
Prince
Cosimo
by
a
grand
-
grand
-
grand
-
grand
-
mother
of
Silvio
Santos
,
from
the
Abravanel
family
,
and
which
is
considered
to
be
one
of
the
most
importantmuseums
of
the
world
.
This
means
capital
,
tourism
,
profitability
,
knowledge
.
It
s
a
form
of
capital
that
is
less
immediate
,
but
which
in
the
end
produces
a
much
bigger
profit
.
Here
lies
the
problem
we
are
dealing
with
.
Evidently
it
was
extraordinary
for
me
to
see
the
absolute
change
of
quality
after
25
years
,
that
is
,
during
all
these
years
the
Silvio
Santos
Group
presented
a
series
of
projects
,
one
of
them
transferring
parts
of
the
land
plot
to
the
Oficina
.
But
those
were
projects
to
which
I
could
not
give
way
to
.
Even
if
sometimes
the
architects
would
tell
me
:
you
should
give
way
to
it
because
they
are
giving
you
two
times
the
space
of
the
theatre
,
but
I
did
not
agree
to
it
because
it
didn
t
correspond
to
the
stadium
theatre
idea
.
CHARACTERISTICS
OF
THE
PRESENT
PROJECT
This
project
has
an
interesting
feature
.
A
stone
will
be
cast
in
the
middle
,
so
that
the
theatre
will
no
longer
look
like
a
shopping
centre
stand
;
rather
,
it
will
become
the
centre
,
the
square
,
the
Mecca
,
where
the
architectural
happening
takes
place
.
This
stone
is
still
being
shaped
by
Marcelo
Suzuki
.
And
Lina
always
talked
of
terreiro
soil
[
terreiro
is
an
outdoor
place
where
rituals
of
candomblé
or
umbanda
are
practised
]
,
she
talked
of
a
street
,
of
a
Milan
theatre
gallery
leading
to
Silvio
Santos
catacomb
.
Even
with
this
idea
of
a
Silvio
Santos
catacomb
she
imagined
a
stadium
full
of
holes
,
just
as
the
Coliseum
,
because
she
liked
holes
,
as
for
example
the
holes
of
the
SESC
[
theatre
owned
by
the
Social
Service
for
Trade
]
,
which
she
nicknamed
Beirut
and
which
today
she
would
call
the
holes
of
Falluja
,
Iraq
.
I
want
it
to
be
a
completely
holed
stone
.
The
stone
is
being
made
of
cement
,
clay
,
earth
,
but
it
gives
the
idea
of
a
stone
,
which
I
am
very
fond
of
because
it
makes
me
think
ofthe
Greek
theatre
and
the
first
theatre
stadiums
,
where
the
grandstands
were
carved
from
stone
.
The
Greek
theatre
was
carved
in
stone
and
this
accounted
for
the
good
sound
quality
.
That
is
more
or
less
what
will
happen
.
However
,
for
the
time
being
there
are
no
holes
in
the
drawing
.
For
the
time
being
-
and
that
is
something
I
think
is
even
worse
and
which
was
rightly
noted
by
Mariana
well
,
a
stadium
theatre
has
to
be
open
to
the
four
corners
of
the
city
,
because
it
is
a
crossroads
.
It
has
to
have
an
opening
to
the
Santo
Amaro
street
,
another
one
to
the
Abolição
street
,
one
to
the
Jaceguai
street
and
the
other
to
the
Japurá
street
,
because
it
s
a
public
monument
after
all
.
This
project
has
also
something
of
an
Italian
stage
,
of
a
church
saint
with
no
back
.
I
think
that
such
a
monument
has
to
have
buttocks
,
it
has
to
have
a
whole
body
,
it
must
be
visible
from
the
four
corners
,
it
cannot
be
something
opened
up
to
just
one
side
.
So
I
fight
for
this
,
I
fight
for
the
shopping
centre
itself
to
be
opened
to
the
four
corners
of
the
city
.
And
foremost
I
fight
for
this
theatre
to
have
its
breath
open
to
the
four
corners
of
the
city
.
We
didn
t
conquered
the
Abolição
street
yet
,
that
means
,
in
the
present
project
of
the
shopping
centre
there
is
no
access
to
the
theatre
trough
the
Abolição
street
.
As
a
matter
of
fact
,
I
consider
this
stadium
theatre
as
the
DNA
of
other
stadium
theatres
which
will
be
build
.
And
the
DNA
of
the
stadium
theatre
is
always
very
important
,
because
it
has
to
contain
the
qualities
of
all
which
will
come
in
future
.
In
reality
,
I
wanted
a
stadium
of
15
thousand
seats
,
but
this
one
will
have
thousand
seats
.
This
doesn
'
t
really
upset
me
,
because
I
know
it
s
a
process
,
something
that
needs
a
practical
exercise
and
has
to
be
improved
to
go
on
growing
.
I
hope
this
idea
willexpand
with
the
expansion
of
the
theatre
itself
,
in
proportion
to
its
relationship
to
music
,
to
dance
,
and
to
the
digital
revolution
,
and
with
the
ascent
of
the
Brazilian
people
,
of
this
culture
,
which
is
a
world
-
wide
culture
,
the
culture
of
race
mixture
.
This
kind
of
theatre
will
expand
not
only
in
Brazil
,
but
in
the
world
.
So
much
that
we
want
to
see
here
a
place
where
a
world
-
wide
biennial
festival
-
at
least
-
will
be
performed
.
But
the
theatre
isn
'
t
ready
yet
.
They
had
a
difficult
fight
to
achieve
this
space
,
so
that
the
theatre
for
example
would
have
its
own
sky
,
that
it
would
not
be
an
insertion
in
the
body
of
a
shopping
centre
.
Well
,
the
architects
came
along
,
exhausted
by
this
fight
,
and
presented
that
,
but
I
still
feel
the
whole
shopping
centre
isgiving
a
too
tight
embrace
.
There
has
to
be
more
room
.
Another
thing
is
that
they
think
that
we
are
still
in
discussions
.
So
I
want
that
the
West
side
wall
of
the
theatre
,
which
has
a
big
window
,
opens
up
through
doors
.
That
it
opens
up
directly
to
the
stadium
,
and
that
the
Oficina
theatre
becomes
what
the
Greek
would
call
"
skene
"
,
which
is
the
stage
place
in
the
Greek
theatre
,
where
the
gods
and
the
protagonists
appeared
.
And
then
there
is
a
circle
,
which
is
the
orchestra
,
where
the
choir
is
located
.
I
want
this
theatre
as
a
Greek
theatre
,
with
level
curves
,
I
want
it
swinging
-
a
swaying
theatre
,
as
if
it
were
a
bass
-
drum
-
drome
[
joke
with
the
word
sambódromo
,
where
the
samba
schools
parade
during
Carnival
]
,
because
we
are
going
to
use
both
the
spaces
ofthe
orchestra
as
well
as
of
the
scene
to
make
the
productions
.
It
will
be
a
theatre
to
act
on
through
and
through
,
as
if
it
had
many
hills
,
many
segments
.
That
is
why
I
first
thought
of
calling
Oscar
Niemeyer
.
I
wanted
Niemeyer
because
of
the
curves
,
because
I
wanted
a
swaying
Greek
theatre
.
We
haven
t
come
to
that
yet
.
This
all
Marcelo
Suzuki
will
put
in
detail
.
Another
aspect
is
:
in
the
first
version
,
there
were
two
domes
,
one
located
just
right
above
the
stage
,
which
gave
not
the
idea
of
a
stadium
,
because
if
you
walk
in
a
stadium
,
the
first
thing
you
see
is
the
vastness
,
you
see
the
roundness
,
you
see
everybody
,
you
see
the
open
sky
.
Sure
,
if
it
'
s
raining
,
you
ll
close
it
.
Today
there
is
a
beautiful
highly
advanced
technology
-
because
of
the
Olympic
Games
-
and
I
want
the
theatre
that
way
.
In
this
drawing
there
is
still
a
small
dome
and
another
one
,
which
in
reality
is
designed
for
a
small
theatre
of
100
seats
,
quite
nice
,
with
a
view
to
all
of
the
city
.
But
I
think
this
can
be
done
covering
a
part
of
the
stadium
-
as
there
are
those
places
which
are
more
expensive
,
which
stay
protected
from
the
sun
.
The
best
is
really
the
visibility
,
the
open
sky
.
With
a
dome
which
opens
and
closes
and
which
at
the
same
time
is
a
projection
screen
,
which
may
be
used
with
all
the
inventions
provided
by
the
digital
revolution
.
A
dome
which
even
on
sunny
days
may
be
easily
closed
,
as
does
the
mobile
roof
here
at
the
stage
of
the
Oficina
,
so
that
one
can
make
projections
on
it
.
THE
MANAGEMENT
-
A
QUESTION
TO
BE
DEFINED
SOONEST
A
question
I
think
is
of
foremost
importance
and
in
a
way
is
not
mentioned
,
but
which
has
to
be
made
explicit
as
soon
as
possible
is
the
management
.
I
want
this
theatre
to
be
managed
by
us
from
the
Uzyna
Uzona
,
with
the
advice
of
the
whole
Braziliantheatre
.
A
council
with
the
major
names
of
the
Brazilian
theatre
and
with
the
objective
to
serve
all
Brazilian
ensembles
who
want
to
make
stadium
theatre
at
this
place
.
That
means
,
it
s
not
a
place
to
make
shows
as
you
have
in
the
Moema
district
.
It
s
a
place
for
a
theatre
which
has
developed
a
lot
in
the
sixties
but
which
has
suffered
a
very
strong
repression
and
could
not
follow
its
natural
way
.
This
all
we
would
already
have
in
Brazil
if
it
weren
'
t
for
the
AI
-
5
[
Institutional
Act
No
.
5
which
revoked
civil
and
political
rights
during
the
military
dictatorship
]
.
So
it
s
necessary
to
recover
the
space
which
belongs
to
the
theatre
.
Not
a
place
for
a
boring
big
theatre
,
but
for
a
theatre
which
works
with
music
,
dance
,
with
all
the
space
,
with
the
circus
,
withanimals
,
with
the
trapeze
,
with
the
movies
and
with
the
theatre
.
I
think
this
is
the
tendency
of
the
total
theatre
.
OK
,
the
shopping
centre
is
managed
by
the
Silvio
Santos
Group
,
it
has
a
commercial
character
.
But
the
stadium
theatre
has
to
be
managed
bythe
Uzyna
Uzona
,
with
a
council
of
the
most
expressive
names
of
the
Brazilian
theatre
and
culture
,
and
it
should
be
used
by
all
Brazilian
and
international
ensembles
who
wish
to
make
stadium
theatre
.
It
has
to
be
a
place
that
privileges
the
theatre
.
Occasionally
you
may
stage
a
show
or
something
similar
.
But
it
s
not
a
place
to
stage
a
SBT
[
Sistema
Brasileiro
de
Televisão
]
show
.
It
s
not
a
place
for
sales
,
it
s
a
place
for
creation
,
which
I
believe
will
have
a
great
economic
value
,
and
a
great
financial
value
as
well
.
But
it
s
not
a
place
for
business
to
business
.
At
least
,
it
has
to
be
a
place
for
show
-
business
.
That
means
,
the
show
,
the
theatre
,
the
spectacle
is
more
important
than
the
business
.
It
'
s
it
which
will
make
the
business
.
I
think
we
are
doing
such
a
precious
thing
with
"
Os
Sertões
"
that
I
believe
in
an
absolutely
crazy
thing
:
I
begin
to
see
that
it
'
s
possible
for
us
to
make
a
revolution
,
and
that
someday
-
I
don
'
t
know
,
I
think
first
the
Bush
government
has
to
fall
-
we
will
be
presenting
it
on
Broadway
.
I
have
the
impression
that
we
are
creating
a
Brazilian
musical
which
is
completely
different
from
the
American
musical
but
very
strong
and
of
great
interest
for
the
world
.
And
this
place
here
will
contribute
a
lot
for
the
growing
of
this
Brazilianmusical
.
You
know
that
when
a
musical
succeeds
in
the
United
States
it
'
s
an
investment
.
Fortunes
are
invested
in
it
and
it
has
an
enormous
economic
value
.
I
believe
that
theatre
produces
this
economic
value
.
You
just
need
to
have
the
conditions
.
Therefore
,
this
place
has
to
be
managed
in
an
unconventional
way
.
There
has
to
be
a
management
where
the
cultural
aspect
is
above
the
immediate
profit
concern
.
This
is
something
I
have
to
seriously
discuss
with
Silvio
Santos
.
Because
if
this
doesn
'
t
happen
,
it
s
going
to
be
terrible
.
There
will
be
shows
all
the
time
.
Certainly
we
will
work
for
a
strong
acoustic
isolation
between
one
stage
and
the
other
,
so
that
sometimes
we
may
perform
on
the
two
places
simultaneously
.
But
at
the
place
they
have
put
a
series
of
trees
in
the
middle
.
Only
then
the
stadium
begins
.
There
is
a
separation
.
They
say
that
we
are
still
in
discussions
,
but
in
my
opinion
this
is
a
piece
of
work
which
cannot
be
build
on
talks
,
it
has
to
be
build
on
a
common
desire
to
do
something
really
strong
.
Beginning
by
the
name
,
stadium
theatre
-
which
was
created
by
Oswald
de
Andrade
and
which
was
rediscovered
by
the
Teatro
Oficina
-
clearly
the
concept
has
always
been
an
extension
of
the
Oficina
.
A
history
of
25
years
is
there
to
prove
this
.
You
can
'
t
isolate
one
thing
from
the
other
.
I
don
'
t
agree
with
this
.
So
much
that
on
Sunday
,
which
is
my
day
off
,
I
will
stay
home
writing
a
text
about
the
elements
which
I
don
'
t
agree
with
and
about
the
elements
which
I
have
to
fight
for
.
THE
SPECIFIC
CULTURES
OF
THE
BIXIGA
DISTRICT
AND
BRAZIL
ITS
IMPORTANCE
FOR
THE
GLOBALIZED
WORLD
OF
TODAY
Marilú
:
You
mean
it
'
s
a
process
which
still
continues
?
Zé
Celso
:
It
'
s
a
process
,
but
I
believe
it
has
already
been
achieved
.
I
think
this
has
not
yet
been
understood
by
the
financial
executives
,
who
have
understanding
difficulties
.
But
I
'
m
absolutely
sure
that
it
has
been
understood
by
Silvio
Santos
,
and
that
'
s
why
I
make
a
point
of
meeting
Silvio
Santos
again
,
so
that
we
may
talk
about
the
management
question
.
And
that
he
comes
forward
to
his
executive
team
and
declares
:
Be
informed
that
the
management
belongs
to
Uzyna
Uzona
.
This
is
for
the
Brazilian
theatre
,
it
'
s
for
the
international
theatre
.
It
'
s
only
for
the
theatre
.
Sometimes
it
will
have
an
utilization
which
you
executives
won
'
t
understand
from
the
economic
point
of
view
,
as
if
this
were
about
a
factory
.
It
'
s
not
.
It
'
s
about
something
different
,
it
'
s
about
creation
.
It
'
s
about
another
way
of
thinking
.
Otherwise
it
has
no
value
,
it
won
'
t
mean
a
damn
thing
.
Otherwise
you
won
'
t
have
there
,
in
that
centre
,
a
liberty
of
another
quality
than
that
which
exists
in
the
commerce
surrounding
it
.
And
this
liberty
there
in
the
centre
will
communicate
-
through
the
streets
-
with
the
other
liberties
for
which
I
continue
fighting
for
,
the
liberties
of
the
small
businesses
of
the
Bixiga
district
.
It
'
s
OK
that
there
are
the
big
businesses
,
but
these
mustn
'
t
necessarily
liquidate
the
small
ones
.
The
street
vendors
are
there
to
prove
this
,
and
not
only
them
-
you
can
seeit
all
over
the
world
,
the
bakeries
,
the
bistros
in
Paris
,
the
specific
charm
of
each
place
.
For
example
here
,
right
ahead
,
there
is
a
marvellous
Italian
restaurant
owned
by
Concheta
,
who
is
a
beautiful
woman
,
daughter
of
the
founder
of
the
Bixiga
districtand
who
has
two
daughters
who
work
in
theatre
-
she
has
a
very
cosy
and
delicious
restaurant
.
The
shopping
centre
will
bring
along
those
franchised
restaurants
,
those
chain
businesses
of
everything
-
there
is
a
consumer
public
interested
in
this
.
But
in
our
globalized
world
there
is
a
growing
interest
for
specific
things
,
for
the
possibility
to
go
to
that
one
place
which
has
a
particular
smell
,
a
particular
taste
,
the
possibility
to
eat
that
particular
delicious
food
;
to
go
and
fetch
that
clothing
which
that
particular
dressmaker
knows
how
to
make
.
All
this
should
not
get
lost
.
This
theatre
represents
this
all
.
This
theatre
is
to
be
as
if
it
were
an
assembly
.
By
the
way
,
it
may
have
this
use
.
It
may
be
used
for
assemblies
by
the
inhabitants
of
Bixiga
who
want
to
work
on
behalf
of
their
district
in
fact
this
will
be
inevitable
,
it
'
s
an
agorá
[
the
marketplace
of
ancient
Greek
cities
]
.
This
is
of
utmost
importance
.
And
it
has
to
be
understood
as
follows
:
in
the
midst
of
the
shopping
centre
,
there
is
an
islandwhich
communicates
-
through
various
bridges
-
with
this
flourishing
Bixiga
,
with
all
this
wonderful
people
who
mustn
'
t
be
expelled
from
here
.
It
s
obvious
that
the
people
who
live
in
the
street
have
to
occupy
houses
and
buildings
which
exist
here
.
They
have
to
lead
a
decent
life
,
there
is
no
sense
in
having
these
people
living
in
the
street
.
There
aren
'
t
too
many
of
them
,
this
problem
is
perfectly
soluble
.
It
'
s
a
problem
which
the
occupation
movement
can
solve
,
together
with
the
municipality
administration
,
to
find
an
occupation
for
these
people
.
It
'
s
absurd
to
see
the
Bixiga
as
a
district
with
people
living
in
the
streets
,
because
it
s
a
historical
district
with
traditions
,
a
bohemian
district
with
a
cultural
life
,
where
you
can
live
an
artists
life
.
This
district
doesn
t
have
to
bear
this
.
There
are
very
few
street
people
,
they
could
perfectly
be
given
a
home
,
and
it
'
s
also
possible
to
give
them
the
opportunity
to
learning
.
THE
POPULAR
UNIVERSITY
OF
BRAZILIAN
ORGIASTIC
CULTURE
One
of
the
big
losses
wasthat
of
the
synagogue
.
I
wanted
very
much
to
make
an
university
of
the
synagogue
,
but
they
have
made
an
exchange
with
the
Jewish
people
to
move
the
synagogue
to
another
place
,
and
they
are
going
to
take
the
stained
glass
windows
with
them
,
which
in
my
opinion
are
an
important
part
the
axé
of
the
synagogue
[
axé
designates
the
magical
foundation
and
the
sacred
objects
of
candomblé
sanctuaries
]
.
Sure
,
the
axé
of
the
place
will
continue
to
exist
and
I
would
love
to
make
an
university
at
this
place
,
but
there
is
this
decision
of
the
Jewish
community
itself
.
Therefore
I
want
Silvio
Santos
to
build
a
bridge
to
another
building
he
s
got
he
owns
a
lot
of
buildings
there
in
order
to
install
a
school
,
a
popular
university
of
arts
.
An
university
of
the
Brazilian
popular
culture
of
mixed
race
.
They
tell
me
not
to
say
this
word
,
but
I
will
do
it
:
orgiastic
.
Because
I
use
the
word
orgiastic
not
only
in
the
sense
of
free
sexuality
,
of
free
love
,
but
also
in
the
sense
of
mixing
virtual
technology
with
the
worldtechnology
which
is
the
theatre
,
the
mixing
of
everything
with
everything
.
In
this
sense
I
employ
orgy
.
But
that
doesn
t
mean
that
I
don
t
employ
it
in
the
other
sense
,
because
the
Oficina
theatre
has
a
great
importance
in
the
fight
for
sexual
liberty
,
which
today
has
turned
into
a
political
phenomenon
in
the
world
after
the
polemic
created
by
gay
marriage
.
Bush
has
gained
a
victory
,
and
the
world
continues
to
struggle
.
In
the
Big
Brother
show
there
was
that
moment
in
which
the
guy
assumed
he
was
gay
,
and
people
demanded
him
to
stay
in
the
programme
.
So
he
continues
in
the
show
.
It
s
a
political
subject
.
The
erotic
liberty
of
each
person
is
not
only
to
be
respected
,
it
s
also
to
be
encouraged
.
Because
these
people
have
grown
up
in
a
repressive
society
,
so
this
work
towards
an
erotic
promotion
in
life
is
a
political
task
of
relevance
.
It
s
embedded
in
this
mixed
race
culture
and
may
lead
to
a
revolution
all
over
the
world
.
It
s
not
embedded
in
the
capitalist
culture
,
which
culturally
is
very
fragile
;
it
s
moralist
,
it
s
puritan
,
it
s
excluding
.
What
I
mean
is
that
the
culture
,
the
cinema
,
the
literature
of
capitalism
above
all
that
of
the
North
American
capitalism
-
is
made
of
nice
heroes
and
bad
characters
,
and
there
are
always
the
chosen
ones
.
It
s
an
uncouth
culture
compared
to
this
mixed
race
culture
,
for
example
the
world
music
,
which
is
known
all
over
the
world
,
and
which
in
fact
is
an
anthropophagic
[
cannibal
-
like
]
culture
,
it
s
a
culture
of
mixture
,
of
liberty
.
All
in
all
,
it
s
the
total
liberty
of
the
people
worldwide
.
A
liberty
that
begins
with
the
individual
.
Well
,
what
we
want
to
teach
in
this
university
has
its
origin
in
love
,
in
the
libido
,
beginning
with
the
vowels
,
from
a
,
e
,
i
,
u
,
óoooo
because
ó
is
more
open
,
and
the
purpose
of
life
is
pleasure
.
So
it
will
be
an
university
which
will
teach
all
techniques
necessary
to
the
art
of
theatre
.
It
s
an
university
for
the
creation
of
a
civilisation
,
a
contribution
to
create
a
civilisation
.
Because
the
stadium
can
t
be
understood
if
there
isn
t
a
school
to
prepare
people
to
exercise
it
,
above
all
the
common
people
,
who
are
more
close
to
the
languages
of
the
stadium
theatre
.
People
who
are
more
likely
to
develop
themselves
in
the
circus
,
in
dance
,
in
the
rituals
of
popular
religions
,
as
"
umbanda
and
candomblé
,
and
also
carnival
.
That
is
to
say
,
the
music
of
it
all
.
So
I
want
a
popular
university
,
because
I
believe
the
strength
both
of
the
Oficina
theatre
as
well
as
of
its
projection
upon
the
stadium
theatre
are
moments
of
the
foremost
importance
.
THE
IMPORTANCE
OF
PUBLIC
OPINION
FOR
THE
IMPLEMENTATION
OF
THE
PROJECT
That
s
why
I
defend
this
project
,
because
this
is
the
moment
of
change
,
the
moment
to
go
out
on
the
streets
and
to
come
to
the
apotheosis
,
to
come
to
the
circle
,
to
the
place
where
you
can
really
found
again
the
Brazilian
popular
theatre
,
a
theatre
that
s
musical
,
danceable
,
erotic
,
visual
,
plastic
,
funny
,
circus
-
like
,
and
which
will
attract
huge
multitudes
.
These
all
are
things
which
have
been
very
clearly
in
my
mind
for
25
years
now
and
which
-
as
I
see
-
the
architects
,
urged
by
financial
speculations
,
still
weren
'
t
able
to
solve
.
I
see
the
need
for
pressure
on
the
part
of
public
opinion
.
This
is
why
we
ll
open
our
Web
site
for
debate
.
This
is
not
really
a
means
of
pressure
,
rather
it
'
s
an
ideological
contribution
,
a
creative
and
inventive
contribution
.
That
'
s
something
which
never
existed
before
.
It
'
s
nice
,
because
people
have
ideas
,
people
know
about
things
,
people
want
things
.
For
example
this
girl
,
she
expressed
herself
-
Ihave
been
receiving
news
through
Orkut
that
people
are
gossiping
a
lot
,
saying
that
I
'
m
a
traitor
,
that
I
'
ve
given
up
everything
and
so
forth
.
But
it
'
s
nothing
of
that
kind
,
it
'
s
a
process
,
in
which
we
have
already
had
a
big
victory
with
this
visit
of
Silvio
Santos
.
I
wouldn
'
t
have
achieved
anything
if
I
had
dealt
only
with
the
people
of
the
capital
,
because
I
think
what
changes
things
are
the
people
.
The
structures
are
there
to
be
changed
by
people
,
they
are
not
there
to
enslave
people
.
So
the
man
who
already
is
above
,
who
has
his
neck
outside
the
structure
,
as
Silvio
Santos
does
,
has
given
the
order
to
demolish
a
building
because
this
would
look
better
.
I
found
this
attitude
just
wonderful
.
The
group
was
scandalised
.
I
believe
in
him
,
I
trust
he
will
understand
all
the
significance
of
this
,
all
the
international
grandiosity
which
will
last
for
ever
and
which
we
are
capable
to
give
.
THE
PEOPLE
OF
THE
BIXIGA
DISTRICT
This
place
mustn
'
t
become
a
mediocre
place
.
The
calculation
has
to
have
some
more
"
reais
"
,
some
more
dollars
.
The
reward
will
come
later
,
in
form
of
many
more
dollars
,
many
more
euros
.
It
may
become
an
international
shopping
centre
of
international
interest
,
because
such
a
popular
district
begins
to
have
an
international
interest
,
as
it
becomesan
island
which
will
serve
as
orientation
for
the
whole
world
,
which
will
allow
it
to
expand
itself
in
this
sea
which
is
the
common
people
.
And
this
people
of
the
Bixiga
district
is
a
great
people
,
it
'
s
a
wholly
mixed
people
.
To
have
the
[
samba
school
]
Vai
-
Vai
is
a
luxury
,
that
African
mix
,
all
these
people
drinking
,
sniffing
,
smoking
,
talking
,
singing
,
dancing
.
I
mean
,
it
'
s
an
ecological
thing
;
humanity
needs
such
a
kind
of
space
.
For
millenniums
humanity
has
been
celebrating
itself
in
liberty
.
So
this
joyful
thing
which
exists
in
the
Vai
-
Vai
and
in
this
district
,
this
people
that
is
a
mixture
of
Italian
and
black
people
with
everything
and
with
the
people
from
the
Northeast
region
results
in
people
you
can
talk
to
and
who
go
to
this
theatre
.
The
Bixigão
project
was
a
revolution
in
this
district
and
has
put
us
in
direct
contact
with
these
wonderful
people
.
They
are
not
of
the
kind
of
the
medium
class
"
paulista
"
,
of
the
inhabitant
of
São
Paulo
who
is
framed
in
the
machine
,
who
closes
the
windows
of
his
car
,
who
doesn
'
t
want
to
talk
to
anybody
,
who
thinks
the
poor
have
to
be
massacred
,
who
thinks
the
poor
are
no
issue
.
They
are
not
like
the
imbecile
paulistas
,
these
poker
face
people
.
They
are
people
who
are
a
heritage
of
mankind
.
So
this
is
a
thing
which
has
to
be
understood
and
which
is
linked
with
the
whole
.
RE
-
DESIGNATION
OF
THE
MINHOCÃO
VIADUCT
There
is
still
another
issue
to
be
added
,
regarding
the
Minhocão
viaduct
.
There
is
a
possibility
,
which
has
already
been
planned
in
the
project
of
Paulo
Mendesda
Rocha
and
which
Marcelo
Ferraz
will
be
able
to
adapt
and
which
is
a
very
good
idea
,
that
is
to
cover
the
Minhocão
viaduct
with
earth
and
to
build
a
small
amphitheatre
under
the
Minhocão
.
This
place
could
simultaneously
be
the
dressing
room
for
animals
,
for
horses
and
elephants
.
I
have
seen
a
photograph
of
Elvira
Pagã
on
the
back
of
an
elephant
.
So
it
would
be
possible
for
an
elephant
to
cross
this
place
and
enter
the
stadium
theatre
;
therefore
there
must
be
a
dressing
room
for
it
.
INFORMATION
TOWER
AND
PRODUCTION
TOWER
And
on
the
two
pieces
of
land
which
belong
to
the
municipality
there
should
be
a
production
house
with
a
bar
,
where
you
can
find
pingas
[
white
rum
]
from
all
places
in
the
world
,
and
on
the
neighbouring
piece
of
landan
archive
.
I
am
very
engaged
in
the
struggle
for
the
creation
of
an
archive
,
I
am
looking
for
subsidies
to
begin
immediately
to
set
up
a
data
bank
,
to
make
available
what
the
Oficina
has
in
store
and
which
is
of
universal
interest
.
It
s
a
crime
to
have
everything
so
locked
up
.
There
is
not
an
easy
access
to
it
because
the
material
is
not
organised
.
I
m
trying
to
raise
funds
for
this
,
but
we
need
to
define
the
place
and
I
want
it
to
be
in
one
of
the
towers
Paulo
Mendes
da
Rocha
has
visualised
and
Marcelo
Ferraz
could
adapt
and
which
Silvio
Santos
could
sponsor
as
a
whole
,
so
that
it
becomes
a
really
strong
thing
.
REVOLUTION
INSIDE
THE
CAPITALISM
GILBERTO
GIL
,
BRAZIL
S
MOST
IMPORTANT
MINISTER
If
it
is
to
become
a
mediocre
thing
,
I
don
t
want
it
.
I
have
agreed
to
this
bureaucratic
thing
because
I
believe
in
the
very
good
relationship
with
Silvio
Santos
.
There
is
also
a
very
good
relationship
with
the
architects
,
and
the
relationship
with
the
people
of
the
financial
group
has
been
good
and
is
still
improving
.
Nevertheless
they
still
believe
that
they
have
to
think
according
to
the
immediate
profit
machinery
.
It
is
as
if
they
had
a
helmet
,
a
Matrix
over
their
heads
.
But
even
this
people
may
do
without
this
Matrix
and
begin
to
think
in
longer
terms
,
because
Brazil
is
growing
and
it
will
be
a
rich
nation
.
And
it
won
t
grow
with
a
mentality
of
excessive
and
stingy
exploration
.
It
s
necessary
to
have
another
kind
of
capitalism
here
in
Brazil
:
a
revolution
within
capitalism
itself
.
The
other
day
,
a
friend
of
mine
,
Monique
,
said
that
everybody
should
become
rich
in
order
to
put
an
end
to
capitalism
.
Everybody
wants
to
get
rich
,
but
the
logic
of
capitalism
allows
this
to
happen
only
to
a
few
.
And
those
who
get
rich
become
captives
.
I
heard
that
those
big
bankers
in
Switzerland
who
own
huge
fortunes
don
t
know
what
to
do
with
their
money
;
they
dress
in
blue
jeans
and
do
nothing
,
they
sit
together
looking
at
each
other
because
they
don
t
have
anything
to
do
with
their
money
.
Well
,
they
invest
it
in
the
structure
,
while
we
are
living
in
an
era
in
which
humanity
could
be
much
more
happier
.
It
s
not
an
utopia
;
humanity
doesn
t
need
wars
,
doesn
t
has
to
be
hungry
.
But
it
s
a
question
of
change
in
mentality
.
I
think
we
are
in
a
special
moment
,
because
of
the
culture
,
because
of
this
stadium
theatre
,
because
of
the
man
Silvio
Santos
,
because
of
what
Oficina
is
and
because
of
the
public
which
Oficina
has
and
who
is
discussing
the
subject
.
We
are
living
a
special
moment
,
having
Gilberto
Gil
as
Culture
Minister
,
who
I
believe
is
the
best
Culture
Minister
of
the
world
I
doubt
there
is
another
culture
minister
with
such
a
high
cultural
level
as
Gilberto
Gil
has
,
be
it
in
the
USA
,
in
France
,
in
Israel
,
in
Japan
.
I
m
sure
there
isn
t
.
Well
,
this
all
is
being
wonderful
for
Brazil
.
Just
yesterday
he
was
saying
in
an
interview
that
10
%
of
the
Brazilian
GNP
comes
from
the
cultural
sector
.
That
culture
is
already
a
wealth
factor
and
is
a
creative
industry
.
I
think
this
is
very
good
.
There
has
to
be
a
great
investment
in
creative
industries
.
We
presently
have
as
Culture
Minister
an
Oswaldian
[
Oswald
de
Andrade
(
1890
-
1954
)
,
author
of
the
Anthropophagist
Manifesto
of
1928
]
,
a
tropicalist
[
Gilberto
Gil
is
one
of
the
founders
of
the
cultural
and
musical
movement
Tropicalismo
from
the
late
sixties
and
seventies
]
who
is
the
most
important
minister
of
the
Lula
government
;
then
comes
Celso
Amorim
[
Foreign
Minister
]
,
but
the
foremost
minister
is
Gilberto
Gil
.
Brazil
is
now
living
a
very
important
moment
of
cultural
awakening
.
And
this
cultural
and
economic
awakening
of
the
Brazilian
culture
will
allow
a
change
in
the
vision
of
the
capitalist
mind
conditioned
to
pay
debts
,
to
profit
,
to
enslave
.
I
think
the
major
form
of
slavery
is
if
you
have
to
live
to
pay
debts
and
interest
.
I
think
it
s
a
shame
for
humanity
.
Also
the
impediment
to
the
liberation
of
drugs
is
a
shame
,
as
is
the
trade
with
slaves
.
And
culture
emerges
as
an
enormous
power
to
make
a
revolution
in
society
.
I
believe
that
only
this
can
stop
the
wars
in
Iraq
,
in
Afghanistan
,
and
now
in
Iran
.
That
man
wants
to
invade
Iran
.
It
s
just
crazy
.
And
only
through
a
total
cultural
experience
,
not
only
cerebral
,
but
through
the
experience
of
the
body
,
the
own
experiences
,
the
experience
of
another
dimension
of
the
individual
human
body
and
ofthe
collective
human
body
,
-
all
of
which
will
be
made
possible
by
the
stadium
-
this
revolution
can
be
achieved
.
THE
OFICINA
WEB
SITE
Marilú
:
How
about
the
Web
site
?
Zé
:
We
have
a
Web
site
which
is
not
spectacularly
beautiful
because
we
are
learning
how
to
make
a
Web
site
.
Incidentally
the
guy
which
is
the
best
Web
site
designer
in
the
USA
and
who
makes
a
Web
site
on
movies
has
said
that
his
Web
site
is
not
fabulous
or
ostentatious
because
it
s
a
site
of
content
.
So
that
s
what
we
are
working
for
.
Our
Web
site
is
always
updated
,
it
brings
the
news
of
the
day
,
the
reports
on
the
rehearsals
and
musical
scenes
;
it
has
a
kind
of
TV
and
radio
-
the
Uzyna
Uzona
which
will
soon
show
a
report
of
the
day
on
which
the
model
of
the
project
has
been
presented
-
this
report
is
still
being
edited
.
The
Web
site
will
be
open
to
everyone
who
wants
to
contribute
to
the
discussions
.
We
ll
open
the
site
very
soon
,
I
don
t
know
very
much
about
Web
sites
,
but
I
will
ask
them
to
open
the
site
today
because
of
the
discussions
which
are
being
made
at
Orkut
.
This
is
of
big
relevance
to
us
,
to
the
Silvio
Santos
Group
and
to
Silvio
Santos
himself
.
Because
it
s
an
opinion
poll
,
and
the
discussions
about
the
stadium
theatre
arouse
big
interest
.
And
it
s
a
new
thing
,
it
s
a
first
voyage
,
there
has
never
been
something
like
it
in
the
contemporary
world
.
There
has
been
something
like
it
in
ancient
history
,
and
it
has
to
be
thought
of
in
a
collective
way
.
Please
note
,
it
s
teatroficina
with
only
one
o
,
dot
com
.
dot
br
.
Kisses
to
everybody
.
Translated
by
Angelika
Kohnke
Journal
of
Health
,
Population
and
Nutrition
,
Vol
.
23
,
No
.
3
,
Sept
,
2005
,
pp
.
207
-
214
Perceptions
of
Growth
Monitoring
and
Promotion
among
an
International
Panel
of
District
Medical
Officers
Dominique
Roberfroid
;
Pierre
Lefèvre
;
Tom
Hoerée
;
Patrick
Kolsteren
;
Department
of
Public
Health
,
Nutrition
Unit
,
Institute
of
Tropical
Medicine
,
2000
Antwerp
,
Belgium
Correspondence
and
reprint
requests
should
be
addressed
to
:
Dr
.
D
.
Roberfroid
,
Nutrition
Unit
,
Institute
of
Tropical
Medicine
,
Nationalestraat
155
,
2000
Antwerp
,
Belgium
,
Email
:
droberfroid
@
itg
.
be
Fax
:
32
-
3
-
247
.
65
.
43
Code
Number
:
hn05026
ABSTRACT
The
growth
chart
has
been
proposed
as
an
educational
tool
to
make
the
child
'
s
growth
visible
to
both
health
workers
and
caregivers
and
to
enhance
communication
between
them
.
In
the
case
of
growth
faltering
,
this
would
trigger
timely
corrective
measures
.
Although
the
relevance
of
growth
monitoring
and
promotion
(
GMP
)
has
often
been
questioned
in
the
literature
,
opinions
of
District
Medical
Officers
responsible
for
local
implementation
of
GMP
are
unknown
.
The
aim
of
this
qualitative
research
was
to
explore
the
perceptions
and
difficulties
of
an
international
panel
of
District
Medical
Officers
regarding
GMP
.
As
an
exploratory
study
,
in
-
depth
interviews
of
an
international
panel
of
District
Medical
Officers
(
n
=
19
)
were
conducted
.
Data
were
coded
using
the
QSR
Nudist
5
.
0
software
.
A
discrepancy
between
intended
purposes
and
practice
of
GMP
was
detected
at
two
levels
.
First
,
lack
of
participation
of
care
-
givers
was
reported
.
Second
,
the
District
Medical
Officers
expressed
a
restrictive
interpretation
of
the
concept
of
growth
monitoring
.
The
communication
with
parents
was
never
reported
as
a
means
or
a
result
of
GMP
,
neither
as
an
evaluation
criterion
of
programme
efficiency
.
The
growth
chart
was
mainly
considered
a
tool
intended
to
be
used
by
health
services
for
the
purpose
of
diagnosis
.
This
two
-
fold
discrepancy
between
the
intention
of
international
policy
-
planners
and
practice
of
local
programme
implementers
could
be
a
crucial
factor
affecting
the
performance
of
GMP
.
More
emphasis
should
be
put
on
social
communication
and
involvement
of
caregivers
.
Key
words
:
Child
growth
;
Growth
charts
;
Child
nutritional
status
;
Perceptions
;
Developing
countries
Introduction
The
World
Health
Organization
(
WHO
)
defines
growth
monitoring
and
promotion
(
GMP
)
as
a
nutrition
intervention
that
measures
and
charts
the
weight
of
children
and
uses
this
information
to
counsel
parents
so
that
they
take
actions
to
improve
child
growth
(
1
)
.
The
growth
chart
is
,
thus
,
an
educational
tool
that
helps
both
health
workers
and
mothers
to
visualize
child
growth
(
2
)
.
When
growth
is
adequate
,
parents
should
be
encouraged
and
advised
on
how
to
preserve
that
pattern
.
In
the
reverse
situation
,
growth
faltering
can
be
detected
long
before
any
easily
-
observable
sign
or
symptom
of
malnutrition
becomes
evident
.
This
should
then
trigger
a
reaction
from
health
workers
and
caregivers
to
take
corrective
measures
so
that
the
child
recovers
.
This
recovery
is
visualized
by
an
upward
growth
trajectory
(
3
-
5
)
.
Central
to
all
this
is
that
parents
are
expected
to
appropriate
the
chart
as
a
tool
to
evaluate
and
understand
the
growth
and
development
of
their
children
.
Malnutrition
is
,
in
part
,
responsible
for
high
rates
of
mortality
of
children
,
aged
less
than
five
years
,
as
observed
in
developing
countries
(
6
,
7
)
.
GMP
programmes
have
,
therefore
,
the
potential
to
contribute
to
achieving
the
goals
of
the
child
survival
and
development
revolution
(
2
,
8
)
.
Several
authors
have
pointed
out
that
,
despite
important
international
efforts
,
there
is
little
evidence
that
these
goals
are
being
achieved
(
3
,
9
-
11
)
.
Explanations
put
forward
relate
to
the
poor
performance
of
the
growth
chart
as
a
measurement
tool
,
the
insufficient
or
inadequate
training
and
supervision
of
basic
health
workers
(
12
)
,
and
the
poor
understanding
of
the
chart
by
parents
,
particularly
those
with
low
school
achievement
(
13
-
16
)
.
In
the
whole
debate
on
growth
monitoring
,
the
way
mothers
understand
and
use
the
growth
chart
has
received
much
attention
.
However
,
how
health
managers
,
such
as
District
Medical
Officers
who
organize
and
supervise
the
health
-
system
activities
,
view
and
appreciate
growth
monitoring
has
,
to
our
knowledge
,
never
been
addressed
.
The
aim
of
this
qualitative
exploratory
study
was
,
therefore
,
to
document
the
perceptions
of
these
professionals
on
GMP
,
their
expectations
of
the
programme
,
and
the
difficulties
they
face
in
its
implementation
.
Materials
and
Methods
During
October
-
December
2000
,
an
anthropologist
with
a
medical
background
interviewed
19
District
Medical
Officers
from
South
America
,
Europe
,
Africa
,
and
Asia
(
Table
1
)
.
They
were
randomly
selected
from
a
class
beginning
a
masters
programme
in
public
health
in
Antwerp
,
Belgium
.
All
the
interviewees
had
several
years
of
experience
as
District
Medical
Officers
.
In
-
depth
interviews
were
held
in
French
and
English
and
lasted
45
-
75
minutes
.
A
series
of
structured
prompting
questions
was
used
(
Table
2
)
.
All
interviews
were
tape
-
recorded
with
permission
of
respondents
and
fully
transcribed
.
A
secretary
made
transcripts
,
and
the
interviewer
checked
against
the
recordings
to
ensure
ac
-
curacy
.
Data
were
coded
using
the
QSR
Nudist
5
.
0
software
(
QSR
International
Pty
.
Ltd
.
,
Melbourne
,
Australia
.
2000
)
to
facilitate
cross
-
indexing
.
Codes
were
derived
from
the
research
themes
(
or
research
questions
)
and
from
themes
emerging
from
data
.
The
interviewer
analyzed
the
data
and
a
sociologist
cross
-
checked
to
ensure
their
reliability
(
17
,
18
)
.
The
data
provided
by
the
interviewees
were
treated
as
social
constructs
,
i
.
e
.
as
displays
of
perceptions
,
belief
systems
,
or
assumptions
,
not
as
presentation
of
versions
of
'
reality
'
.
The
transcripts
were
analyzed
for
the
constructs
the
participants
referred
to
,
to
articulate
their
understanding
and
experience
of
GMP
.
Results
The
mean
age
of
the
19
interviewees
was
37
years
.
Males
(
16
of
19
)
and
sub
-
Saharan
Africans
(
10
of
19
)
were
over
-
represented
,
but
those
proportions
corresponded
with
the
student
population
of
that
year
.
A
large
variety
of
experiences
and
opinions
,
reflecting
the
international
pattern
of
the
panel
,
were
collected
.
The
interviewees
originated
from
settings
where
nutritional
issues
,
malnutrition
rates
,
literacy
rates
,
health
policy
,
organization
,
and
resources
of
health
services
differed
considerably
(
Table
1
)
.
They
also
had
very
different
personal
and
professional
histories
,
although
all
had
been
serving
,
or
had
served
,
as
District
Medical
Officers
for
several
years
.
Despite
this
variety
of
backgrounds
,
the
interviewees
were
quite
homogeneous
in
appreciating
the
poor
effectiveness
of
growth
monitoring
.
The
majority
expressed
the
opinion
that
,
in
their
experience
,
GMP
did
not
work
the
way
it
ought
to
.
The
interviewees
emphasized
a
gap
between
intended
purposes
and
practice
.
An
interviewee
argued
,
"
In
theory
,
it
is
a
good
tool
,
it
is
very
interesting
,
but
,
in
practice
,
it
is
different
.
It
is
,
maybe
,
more
a
tool
for
me
than
for
the
mother
to
do
evaluations
,
statistics
.
"
(
15
:
168
-
70
*
[
*
indicate
transcript
no
.
and
lines
respectively
]
)
.
Another
one
added
:
"
Of
course
,
we
did
it
[
GMP
]
.
There
are
many
things
done
only
by
routine
.
It
was
there
,
so
we
kept
it
on
,
maybe
,
due
to
the
lack
of
time
to
find
a
new
strategy
.
"
(
6
:
140
-
1
)
.
One
even
said
,
"
That
is
nearly
utopian
!
"
(
5
:
293
)
.
This
discrepancy
between
purpose
and
practice
of
GMP
was
identified
at
two
levels
in
the
narrative
of
the
participants
:
first
,
in
their
personal
experiences
and
,
second
,
in
the
expression
of
their
understandings
and
perceptions
of
GMP
.
Personal
experiences
The
interviewees
evoked
operational
difficulties
in
the
implementation
of
GMP
.
The
most
consistently
-
reported
reason
was
irregular
attendance
of
mothers
at
weighing
sessions
after
completion
of
the
vaccination
schedule
.
The
participants
explained
this
by
a
lack
of
interest
of
mothers
in
programmes
which
do
not
display
technical
acts
and
visible
effects
.
Mothers
were
said
to
use
their
own
criteria
to
evaluate
the
growth
and
health
of
their
children
and
to
visit
health
services
only
for
obvious
ill
-
ness
of
their
children
.
"
Because
,
in
general
,
mothers
when
they
think
that
their
children
are
in
good
health
,
they
run
,
they
gambol
,
they
[
mothers
]
do
not
see
the
necessity
to
bring
the
children
only
for
parameter
measurements
.
"
(
5
:
30
-
2
)
.
"
Ideally
,
it
is
an
objective
of
prevention
.
But
,
in
practice
,
it
is
as
I
told
you
.
For
health
agents
as
for
beneficiaries
,
it
is
rather
when
there
is
a
problem
.
"
(
1
:
622
-
3
)
.
The
weak
capacity
of
awareness
campaigns
for
motivating
parents
to
adhere
to
the
programme
was
also
underlined
.
The
District
Medical
Officers
attributed
this
failure
partly
to
the
low
motivation
of
health
workers
for
performing
GMP
activities
.
Low
competence
and
heavy
workload
of
field
staff
were
presented
as
obstacles
to
GMP
[
This
was
particularly
mentioned
in
sub
-
Saharan
countries
where
the
responsibility
of
GMP
is
most
of
the
time
taken
by
basic
health
workers
]
,
although
it
was
not
clear
why
these
two
limitations
should
have
affected
GMP
more
particularly
than
other
health
activities
.
Other
limitations
of
the
highlighted
growth
monitoring
related
to
the
capacity
of
response
of
parents
to
the
information
provided
.
The
District
Medical
Officers
frequently
stated
that
parents
failed
to
understand
the
growth
chart
,
mainly
because
they
are
illiterate
or
not
educated
.
One
interviewee
explained
:
"
Because
,
in
our
country
,
they
are
illiterate
.
They
do
not
understand
too
much
what
is
written
on
it
[
the
growth
chart
]
,
it
is
not
too
much
their
concern
.
"
(
1
:
341
)
.
Other
interviewees
were
more
subtle
in
their
explanations
:
"
They
[
health
agents
]
also
think
that
it
is
not
that
important
that
mothers
understand
,
because
the
understanding
point
is
quite
low
,
you
see
.
"
(
16
:
58
-
61
)
.
"
But
I
am
wondering
if
she
[
the
mother
]
really
understands
.
Because
it
is
simple
,
but
sometimes
nurses
also
have
difficulties
to
fill
in
the
growth
chart
.
"
(
15
:
209
-
10
)
.
The
District
Medical
Officers
also
related
the
lack
of
response
to
the
messages
to
low
food
accessibility
and
,
thus
,
limited
applicability
of
nutrition
advice
in
some
contexts
,
as
reported
in
the
following
quote
:
"
But
they
know
it
,
they
know
that
the
child
does
not
eat
very
well
because
it
is
the
same
meal
every
day
.
What
are
you
going
to
propose
?
You
are
not
going
to
propose
anything
because
she
won
'
t
have
the
capacity
to
apply
it
.
This
is
a
problem
.
Thus
,
I
think
that
they
are
right
not
to
come
to
be
repeated
the
same
thing
again
and
again
.
"
(
7
:
515
-
19
)
.
Understanding
and
perceptions
of
GMP
The
above
results
show
that
the
explanations
provided
for
the
perceived
malfunction
of
GMP
relate
much
to
operational
problems
and
to
the
demand
of
the
population
for
curative
and
technical
,
but
not
promotional
,
ser
-
vices
.
The
same
opposition
between
technical
(
visible
,
curative
)
and
intuitive
(
invisible
,
preventive
,
or
promotional
)
aspects
of
care
can
be
found
in
the
narrative
of
the
interviewees
.
Actually
,
the
District
Medical
Officers
endorsed
consciously
or
implicitly
the
primacy
of
technical
aspects
over
promotion
of
health
and
growth
.
One
interviewee
gave
this
revealing
pun
:
"
A
malnourished
one
is
not
going
to
contaminate
somebody
else
.
He
does
not
carry
much
weight
in
the
society
.
"
(
9
:
389
)
.
Another
interviewee
added
:
"
Yes
,
I
always
said
that
the
mother
has
not
come
to
learn
that
her
child
gained
weight
or
not
.
She
has
come
for
you
to
do
something
else
.
You
do
the
vaccinations
.
"
(
18
:
201
-
3
)
.
About
criteria
used
by
mothers
to
evaluate
the
growth
of
their
children
,
the
District
Medical
Officers
consistently
considered
them
subjective
,
approximate
,
and
intuitive
.
However
,
most
District
Medical
Officers
were
unable
to
describe
what
these
criteria
consisted
of
.
One
interviewee
,
for
instance
,
said
,
"
Their
criteria
give
an
idea
but
this
is
not
something
that
is
very
acute
.
We
are
giving
GMP
criteria
in
a
scientific
way
,
they
[
the
parents
]
are
not
up
to
that
point
,
they
have
a
very
general
idea
.
"
(
17
:
356
-
7
)
.
The
ambiguity
is
obvious
in
this
interviewee
:
"
Thus
,
I
think
that
mother
'
s
perception
is
a
criterion
that
cannot
be
really
defined
,
but
I
believe
it
is
important
even
if
it
is
intuitive
.
"
(
5
:
176
-
77
)
.
Thus
,
mothers
are
said
to
come
mainly
for
vaccinations
because
this
is
part
of
the
technical
sphere
under
the
responsibility
of
health
services
.
For
the
majority
of
District
Medical
Officers
,
communication
was
not
a
primary
objective
.
Some
interviewees
even
tended
to
consider
communication
as
a
'
no
-
act
'
,
while
weighing
was
considered
as
the
technical
justification
of
their
presence
in
GMP
.
As
summarized
by
one
interviewee
:
"
Finally
,
to
weigh
,
as
I
said
previously
,
demonstrates
to
the
mother
that
an
act
is
done
.
Second
,
it
is
also
an
act
,
not
a
medical
one
,
but
an
act
made
by
the
health
agents
that
can
encourage
the
mother
to
come
back
the
next
time
.
"
(
5
:
132
-
5
)
.
The
same
interviewee
went
on
talking
about
village
volunteers
:
"
Their
task
is
much
more
to
gather
mothers
and
to
be
willing
to
listen
to
them
but
they
do
not
act
.
"
(
5
:
344
-
5
)
.
From
this
perspective
,
communication
with
parents
using
the
growth
curve
is
secondary
.
It
was
never
either
reported
as
an
objective
of
GMP
,
or
as
a
criterion
to
evaluate
the
programme
efficiency
.
The
growth
chart
was
considered
to
have
mainly
diagnostic
purposes
and
used
for
the
health
information
system
.
For
most
interviewees
,
the
growth
chart
was
given
to
caregivers
for
preservation
and
transfer
of
information
on
vaccinations
and
diseases
,
not
for
motivating
parents
to
monitor
the
child
'
s
growth
:
"
I
find
it
useful
to
not
lose
information
.
But
if
there
were
another
means
,
better
to
get
the
information
,
I
think
we
can
let
it
[
the
health
card
]
down
.
"
(
12
:
225
-
7
)
.
The
following
quote
is
even
more
direct
:
"
The
objective
is
not
to
discuss
with
parents
,
to
educate
them
but
to
determine
if
the
child
is
malnourished
or
not
.
I
think
that
,
with
that
objective
,
we
do
not
have
to
discuss
with
the
mother
to
know
if
the
child
gained
weight
or
not
.
"
(
9
:
295
-
7
)
.
When
growth
faltering
is
detected
,
the
focus
is
on
unilateral
transmission
of
information
and
recommendations
rather
than
on
genuine
communication
with
care
-
givers
.
The
interviewees
rarely
described
balanced
and
specific
exchange
of
information
between
caregivers
and
health
workers
.
One
of
them
did
mention
a
satisfactory
ability
of
his
staff
to
interact
with
caregivers
but
perceived
an
imbalance
in
the
communication
process
:
"
This
is
my
feeling
,
my
understanding
:
health
agents
,
nurses
,
and
doctors
can
speak
well
but
often
cannot
listen
.
Maybe
,
those
messages
and
advice
will
work
much
better
if
one
can
develop
the
capacity
to
listen
.
"
(
2
:
207
-
10
)
.
Some
interviewees
acknowledged
the
dichotomy
.
They
justified
it
as
the
result
of
their
professional
training
and
its
focus
on
curative
care
,
but
also
because
health
professionals
tended
to
give
more
value
to
technical
acts
:
"
Yes
,
you
are
health
agents
.
Yes
,
you
are
here
to
fight
against
diseases
,
to
heal
people
.
It
is
how
it
is
said
during
your
training
or
even
on
several
occasions
.
"
(
1
:
644
-
5
)
.
"
The
health
workers
are
more
concerned
by
immunization
because
each
single
case
is
checked
by
us
,
and
this
is
transmitted
at
the
district
level
.
Much
emphasis
is
given
nationally
on
immunization
.
"
(
17
:
260
-
2
)
.
Finally
,
the
gap
between
what
should
be
done
and
what
is
actually
implemented
gave
the
feeling
to
some
medical
officers
that
GMP
was
a
frustrating
but
compulsory
routine
prescribed
by
national
and
international
agencies
:
"
This
is
an
activity
of
the
Ministry
of
Health
,
thus
we
cannot
forget
it
because
of
the
risk
of
being
reprimanded
.
It
is
the
WHO
,
the
UNICEF
which
advised
to
do
so
"
,
commented
this
interviewee
.
(
13
:
363
-
71
)
.
Another
interviewee
confirmed
it
:
"
I
would
say
that
most
of
the
time
we
do
it
because
we
were
told
to
do
so
.
"
"
The
WHO
told
us
that
it
was
useful
,
important
,
it
was
interesting
,
but
I
think
that
,
in
every
-
day
practice
,
with
some
experience
,
you
can
manage
without
the
growth
chart
.
"
(
15
:
66
-
9
)
.
Others
dealt
with
the
contradiction
by
considering
that
the
programme
had
still
a
role
to
play
because
there
was
no
relevant
alternative
or
the
growth
chart
was
useful
to
health
services
:
"
But
even
so
,
it
is
a
tool
for
the
management
of
activities
that
we
can
maintain
.
"
(
19
:
154
-
7
)
.
"
And
before
abolishing
,
you
need
something
to
replace
it
,
a
valid
alternative
,
and
we
do
not
have
it
.
"
(
16
:
143
-
4
)
.
Discussion
This
study
was
exposed
to
two
potential
biases
.
First
,
the
interviewed
District
Medical
Officers
constitute
a
particular
group
,
which
might
limit
external
validity
.
They
were
all
starting
a
masters
programme
in
public
health
in
a
European
country
.
Their
representativeness
is
,
therefore
,
limited
.
The
relatively
high
degree
of
coherence
among
the
interviewees
,
despite
the
variety
in
backgrounds
,
could
be
explained
by
an
affiliation
to
a
common
professional
sub
-
culture
,
the
field
of
international
health
.
Second
,
the
content
of
the
interviews
could
have
been
influenced
by
the
fact
that
the
interviews
took
place
in
the
institutions
where
the
interviewees
were
studying
.
Each
interview
was
led
by
an
anthropologist
employed
by
the
same
institution
(
19
)
.
Since
the
course
programme
puts
emphasis
on
participatory
processes
and
the
provision
of
healthcare
in
a
process
of
communication
with
the
population
,
some
answers
,
considered
more
acceptable
,
could
have
been
forwarded
.
However
,
if
these
elements
would
have
played
a
role
,
we
would
have
expected
more
answers
mentioning
health
service
activities
committed
to
communication
and
empowerment
of
caregivers
.
Although
all
the
interviewed
health
professionals
agreed
on
the
sub
-
optimal
functioning
of
GMP
,
they
have
a
rather
limited
understanding
of
the
determinants
for
this
failure
.
The
quoted
operational
difficulties
are
very
consistent
with
previous
studies
.
The
drop
-
in
compliance
after
the
immunization
schedule
is
completed
has
often
been
mentioned
and
raised
questions
about
the
real
acceptability
of
GMP
by
caregivers
(
20
)
.
Although
studies
re
-
port
mitigating
results
on
the
understanding
of
the
chart
by
caregivers
,
overall
scores
are
low
(
13
,
21
-
25
)
,
and
the
association
with
literacy
is
quite
consistently
reported
(
13
)
.
Determinants
relating
to
the
understanding
of
the
growth
chart
and
of
GMP
by
health
workers
themselves
were
never
mentioned
,
although
it
has
been
cited
as
a
potential
crucial
element
(
26
-
29
)
.
For
instance
,
it
was
shown
that
when
health
workers
had
a
correct
know
-
ledge
of
GMP
,
a
substantially
higher
proportion
of
growth
charts
was
maintained
(
24
)
.
One
potential
explanation
for
low
rates
of
comprehension
reported
in
mothers
,
as
mentioned
by
some
interviewees
,
could
be
due
to
low
comprehension
of
the
objectives
of
GMP
by
health
workers
,
resulting
in
a
limited
communication
(
20
,
21
,
25
,
26
)
.
A
study
in
India
reported
that
there
was
a
gap
between
knowledge
and
skill
for
interpretation
of
growth
-
chart
data
among
the
assessed
Child
Development
Project
Officers
(
30
)
.
Twenty
-
four
District
Medical
Officers
working
in
the
same
setting
had
a
sub
-
optimal
know
-
ledge
about
GMP
(
31
)
.
Some
authors
have
proposed
that
nutrition
education
could
be
more
effective
by
making
it
more
specific
,
action
-
oriented
,
individualized
,
and
relevant
(
10
,
32
,
33
)
.
This
can
only
be
achieved
if
clear
algorithms
for
decision
-
making
are
available
,
and
if
health
workers
are
trained
in
social
communication
(
32
)
.
Unfortunately
,
these
conditions
appear
to
be
rarely
fulfilled
under
field
conditions
(
14
,
15
,
20
,
26
-
28
,
34
,
35
)
.
Our
study
also
revealed
that
most
interviewed
medical
officers
,
by
lack
of
understanding
or
conviction
,
did
not
attach
great
importance
to
the
communication
process
theoretically
underlying
GMP
.
This
is
a
striking
finding
as
communication
is
central
in
the
concept
of
GMP
and
as
District
Medical
Officers
bear
the
responsibility
of
implementing
GMP
programmes
at
the
local
level
.
We
propose
two
main
hypotheses
to
explain
the
poor
results
of
GMP
worldwide
:
irrelevancy
of
the
concept
or
poor
programme
implementation
(
36
)
.
Our
study
widens
this
second
hypothesis
.
If
caregivers
poorly
understand
the
growth
chart
,
this
might
be
the
final
con
-
sequence
of
a
misunderstanding
between
international
policy
-
makers
and
local
implementers
.
Indeed
,
in
the
interviews
,
GMP
appeared
quite
secondary
in
primary
healthcare
and
communication
quite
secondary
in
GMP
.
It
might
be
as
well
that
the
two
hypotheses
are
strongly
interrelated
:
to
translate
one
concept
(
GMP
)
into
universal
practice
with
one
same
tool
(
graphical
representation
of
the
growth
)
in
various
cultural
contexts
and
nutritional
situations
/
settings
could
be
considered
a
priori
irrelevant
.
The
question
can
be
raised
:
is
this
conceptual
and
technical
dominance
compatible
with
the
idea
of
communication
imbedded
in
GMP
?
What
constitutes
adequate
growth
does
not
necessarily
overlap
among
lay
people
and
health
professionals
(
37
,
38
)
.
This
point
has
too
often
been
overlooked
.
In
Ghana
,
for
instance
,
weight
variation
is
only
one
indicator
among
many
others
traditionally
used
by
caregivers
to
assess
the
nutritional
status
of
their
children
(
39
)
.
In
promotion
as
in
evaluation
of
GMP
,
the
significance
of
lay
perceptions
and
behaviours
concerning
child
development
has
seldom
been
recognized
within
the
context
of
more
'
modern
'
approaches
based
on
western
concepts
of
health
and
disease
.
The
important
international
promotion
of
the
growth
chart
might
not
have
taken
various
cultural
definitions
of
adequate
growth
enough
into
account
so
far
(
40
-
43
)
.
The
attribution
of
growth
faltering
to
a
lack
of
information
leading
to
inappropriate
behaviours
is
a
linear
and
simplistic
paradigm
still
too
often
met
in
GMP
practice
.
This
approach
does
not
recognize
the
complex
interplay
of
the
factors
behind
child
growth
and
development
.
To
have
a
future
,
GMP
practice
needs
to
re
-
focus
on
the
child
as
a
whole
taking
into
account
his
/
her
health
,
growth
,
and
development
,
and
his
/
her
family
and
socio
-
economic
environment
.
Caregivers
should
,
therefore
,
be
involved
in
the
process
to
bring
together
the
observations
and
measurements
made
by
both
mothers
and
health
workers
(
21
,
33
,
41
,
44
,
45
)
.
Developing
and
implementing
such
an
approach
is
challenging
.
It
requires
new
ways
of
working
in
health
services
,
reviewed
training
curricula
of
health
personnels
to
help
them
centre
on
the
child
and
improve
their
attitudes
and
communication
skills
(
46
)
.
In
that
process
,
it
will
be
particularly
crucial
to
convince
medical
officers
that
communication
with
families
represents
a
major
skill
for
health
workers
.
Acknowledgements
The
authors
would
like
to
thank
the
students
of
the
Inter
-
national
Course
in
Health
Development
2000
for
their
participation
in
the
study
.
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©
2005
ICDDR
,
B
:
Centre
for
Health
and
Population
Research
The
following
images
related
to
this
document
are
available
:
Photo
images
[
hn05026t1
.
jpg
]
[
Hellstrom
technique
revisited
:
laparoscopic
management
of
ureteropelvic
junction
obstruction
Meng
MV
,
Stoller
ML
From
the
Department
of
Urology
,
University
of
California
,
San
Francisco
,
School
of
Medicine
,
San
Francisco
,
California
,
USA
Urology
.
2003
;
62
:
404
-
9
OBJECTIVES
:
To
present
our
experience
with
the
treatment
of
adult
ureteropelvic
junction
(
UPJ
)
obstruction
using
a
laparoscopic
Hellstrom
vascular
relocation
technique
.
METHODS
:
Transperitoneal
laparoscopy
was
performed
in
35
patients
for
the
management
of
UPJ
obstruction
.
In
9
cases
,
we
identified
crossing
lower
pole
vessels
and
performed
the
Hellstrom
technique
.
We
discuss
our
indications
,
intraoperative
techniques
,
and
outcomes
when
performing
only
vascular
relocation
in
these
patients
.
RESULTS
:
All
9
patients
presented
with
long
-
standing
flank
pain
and
were
identified
as
having
UPJ
obstruction
(
7
primary
,
2
secondary
)
on
radiographic
imaging
.
The
intraoperative
decision
to
perform
the
Hellstrom
technique
was
based
on
the
presence
of
the
crossing
vessels
,
a
grossly
normal
appearance
of
the
ureter
and
UPJ
,
and
a
small
renal
pelvis
.
The
crossing
vessels
were
completely
mobilized
,
displaced
cephalad
,
and
fixed
using
intracorporeal
sutures
.
The
mean
operative
time
and
blood
loss
was
164
minutes
and
15
mL
,
respectively
.
At
a
mean
follow
-
up
of
19
months
(
range
14
to
31
)
,
the
patients
were
asymptomatic
with
no
evidence
of
obstruction
on
Lasix
nuclear
renography
.
CONCLUSIONS
:
Traditional
treatment
of
UPJ
obstruction
,
with
or
without
crossing
vessels
,
has
been
accomplished
by
pyeloplasty
.
Dismembered
pyeloplasty
is
a
standard
method
in
cases
of
associated
crossing
vessels
;
however
,
we
propose
that
the
Hellstrom
technique
be
considered
in
cases
in
which
the
ureter
appears
normal
and
the
pelvic
anatomy
is
unfavorable
for
transection
and
anterior
reanastomosis
of
the
ureter
and
pelvis
.
These
considerations
are
particularly
relevant
during
the
laparoscopic
approach
in
which
intracorporeal
suturing
and
knot
tying
are
technically
challenging
.
Editorial
Comment
This
article
describes
the
laparoscopic
version
of
an
infrequently
used
option
for
repair
of
ureteropelvic
junction
obstruction
.
In
the
Hellstrom
approach
to
ureteropelvic
junction
obstruction
,
pyeloplasty
is
not
performed
and
instead
the
anterior
crossing
vessels
are
relocated
cephalad
(
a
mean
of
2
.
3
cm
in
this
series
)
.
Proponents
of
this
technique
argue
that
if
there
is
no
intrinsic
ureteral
obstruction
,
and
the
problem
is
simply
anterior
crossing
vessels
that
allow
the
renal
pelvis
to
herniate
forward
and
kink
off
the
ureteropelvic
junction
,
then
this
"
vasculopexy
"
will
solve
the
problem
with
less
surgical
intervention
.
In
an
editorial
following
the
article
,
Dr
.
Stephen
Nakada
expressed
concern
that
cases
of
intrinsic
ureteral
abnormality
might
easily
be
missed
with
the
subjective
assessment
of
the
intra
-
operative
appearance
of
the
ureter
,
and
that
performing
vasculopexy
rather
than
formal
dismembered
pyeloplasty
with
anterior
relocation
of
the
ureter
might
risk
failure
of
the
procedure
.
Indeed
,
the
(
open
surgical
)
Hellstrom
procedure
fell
out
of
favor
years
ago
probably
because
of
exactly
this
problem
it
was
applied
in
situations
where
there
was
in
fact
an
intrinsic
ureteral
abnormality
.
That
the
authors
'
intra
-
operative
assessment
was
accurate
enough
that
their
procedure
was
successful
in
all
nine
patients
is
impressive
.
Even
with
my
own
fairly
large
experience
with
laparoscopic
pyeloplasty
,
I
would
be
concerned
that
I
would
be
unable
to
make
this
assessment
with
a
high
degree
of
accuracy
in
the
operating
room
.
The
authors
cover
themselves
well
in
this
regard
,
stating
"
If
one
is
not
completely
convinced
that
the
UPJ
itself
is
normal
,
dismembered
pyeloplasty
should
be
performed
.
"
A
laparoscopic
Hellstrom
procedure
appears
to
provide
a
good
outcome
in
properly
selected
patients
I
would
just
caution
the
reader
that
this
selection
might
be
very
difficult
and
that
the
price
of
incorrect
selection
(
a
failed
procedure
)
must
be
considered
very
carefully
.
Dr
.
J
.
Stuart
Wolf
Jr
.
Associate
Professor
of
Urology
University
of
Michigan
Ann
Arbor
,
Michigan
,
USA
Evaluation
of
overall
costs
of
currently
available
small
flexible
ureteroscopes
Landman
J
,
Lee
DI
,
Lee
C
,
Monga
M
From
the
Division
of
Urology
,
Washington
University
School
of
Medicine
,
St
.
Louis
,
Missouri
;
and
Department
of
Urology
,
University
of
Minnesota
School
of
Medicine
,
Minneapolis
,
Minnesota
,
USA
Urology
.
2003
;
62
:
218
-
22
OBJECTIVES
:
To
perform
a
meta
-
analysis
of
the
currently
available
data
regarding
the
durability
of
flexible
ureteroscopes
to
establish
cost
estimates
for
the
purchase
and
use
of
five
currently
available
,
smaller
than
9F
,
ureteroscopes
.
Healthcare
costs
have
become
increasingly
germane
to
the
determination
of
disease
management
strategies
.
Improved
ureteroscope
technology
has
expanded
the
role
of
these
instruments
.
However
,
the
initial
purchase
costs
and
high
maintenance
costs
have
become
problematic
with
these
fragile
instruments
.
METHODS
:
Ureteroscope
durability
data
on
the
Storz
11274AA
,
Olympus
URF
-
P3
,
Wolf
7325
.
172
,
ACMI
AUR
-
7
,
and
ACMI
DUR
-
8
were
collected
from
three
prior
studies
.
Combining
the
durability
data
and
cost
data
regarding
the
initial
purchase
price
and
maintenance
costs
of
these
instruments
,
we
calculated
the
overall
costs
associated
with
the
use
of
each
of
the
ureteroscopes
for
25
,
50
,
75
,
and
100
cases
during
the
first
year
(
warranties
included
)
and
with
subsequent
use
.
RESULTS
:
The
variability
in
the
costs
associated
with
the
use
of
the
currently
available
smaller
than
9F
ureteroscopes
was
significant
.
The
initial
instrument
purchase
price
,
durability
,
repair
costs
,
and
associated
warranties
all
contributed
to
large
discrepancies
in
the
cost
of
performing
ureteroscopy
.
In
this
model
,
during
the
first
year
of
ownership
,
the
projected
cost
of
performing
100
ureteroscopic
cases
varied
by
a
difference
of
95
%
depending
on
the
ureteroscope
used
.
CONCLUSIONS
.
Physicians
and
institutions
that
perform
ureteroscopy
should
strongly
consider
the
purchase
price
,
durability
,
repair
cost
,
and
associated
warranties
before
the
purchase
of
small
flexible
ureteroscopes
.
Editorial
Comment
The
most
impressive
advances
in
the
surgical
treatment
of
urolithiasis
over
the
past
decade
have
been
in
ureteroscopy
.
The
holmium
:
YAG
laser
is
a
significantly
superior
flexible
lithotrite
,
and
ancillary
instruments
such
as
tip
less
nitinol
baskets
and
improved
ureteral
access
sheaths
have
contributed
greatly
as
well
.
Certainly
,
however
,
the
most
prominent
improvements
have
been
with
regards
to
the
size
and
capabilities
of
flexible
ureteroscopes
.
The
7
to
8F
flexible
ureteroscopes
,
with
working
channels
in
excess
of
3F
,
allow
routine
access
to
all
portions
of
the
upper
urinary
tract
.
As
pointed
out
in
this
article
,
these
instruments
come
at
a
considerable
price
.
Although
the
initial
purchase
price
of
these
ureteroscopes
are
similar
,
ranging
from
$
11
,
995
to
$
15
,
000
(
USD
)
,
there
is
greater
variability
in
the
cost
of
major
repairs
,
the
degree
of
damage
covered
by
the
warranties
,
and
most
importantly
the
durability
of
the
scopes
.
With
the
exception
of
the
ACMI
DUR
-
8
(
the
new
Storz
ureteroscope
was
not
included
in
this
analysis
)
,
the
other
four
ureteroscopes
have
been
shown
in
a
previous
study
to
last
only
9
.
4
to
14
.
5
cases
before
repair
is
required
.
These
figures
were
drawn
from
a
head
-
to
-
head
comparison
of
these
ureteroscopes
published
previously
,
while
the
durability
of
the
ACMI
DUR
-
8
(
25
cases
before
repair
)
was
obtained
from
a
meeting
abstract
that
examined
only
that
instrument
.
As
such
,
the
markedly
improved
figure
for
the
DUR
-
8
could
be
due
in
part
to
other
factors
,
but
the
concept
that
durability
(
as
well
as
repair
cost
and
warranty
coverage
)
makes
a
large
difference
in
the
overall
cost
of
using
a
small
-
caliber
ureteroscope
is
valid
.
The
authors
give
us
the
very
interesting
figure
"
on
the
basis
of
consistent
data
provided
by
all
four
manufacturers
"
that
70
%
of
ureteroscopes
sent
in
for
repair
have
been
damaged
by
user
error
-
usually
holmium
:
YAG
laser
damage
to
the
working
channel
.
The
take
-
home
message
is
:
if
you
want
to
minimize
the
cost
of
flexible
ureteroscopy
,
then
determine
the
repair
cost
and
warranty
coverage
of
a
ureteroscope
,
consider
its
reported
durability
,
and
be
careful
with
the
lithotrite
.
Dr
.
J
.
Stuart
Wolf
Jr
.
Associate
Professor
of
Urology
University
of
Michigan
Ann
Arbor
,
Michigan
,
USA
©
2006
Sociedade
Brasileira
de
Urologia
Rua
Bambina
,
153
22251
-
050
Rio
de
Janeiro
RJ
Brazil
Tel
.
+
55
21
2539
-
6787
Fax
:
+
55
21
2246
-
4088
The
rate
and
morphology
of
collagen
degradation
were
comparatively
analyzed
in
rats
with
"
early
"
and
"
late
"
carbon
tetrachloride
-
induced
hepatic
fibrosis
,
during
three
different
periods
after
discontinuation
of
the
drug
.
Treatment
with
CCl
4
lasted
for
eight
weeks
for
the
group
of
early
fibrosis
and
12
weeks
for
the
late
fibrosis
group
.
Fibrosis
gradually
disappeared
,
but
when
quantitative
methods
were
applied
,
the
amount
of
collagen
degradation
and
removal
in
early
and
late
fibrosis
did
not
reach
statistical
significance
.
The
light
microscope
and
ultrastructural
changes
were
also
qualitatively
similar
in
both
cases
.
Probably
some
long
-
lasting
effects
to
the
liver
,
induced
by
the
drug
,
prevented
early
hepatic
fibrosis
from
undergoing
the
characteristic
ultrastructural
changes
seen
during
"
acute
"
collagen
degradation
,
as
compared
to
other
experimental
models
of
hepatic
fibrosis
,
after
the
causal
agent
is
totally
removed
.
Present
findings
suggest
that
not
only
the
age
of
fibrosis
but
also
the
overall
damage
inflicted
to
the
organ
are
limiting
factors
in
the
process
of
collagen
degradation
and
removal
.
unitermos
Degradação
do
colágeno
Fibrose
hepática
induzida
por
CCl
4
Cirrose
hepática
resumo
O
grau
e
a
morfologia
da
degradação
do
colágeno
foram
comparativamente
analisados
em
ratos
com
fibrose
hepática
recente
(
tratamento
de
oito
semanas
com
tetracloreto
de
carbono
)
e
tardia
(
igual
tratamento
por
12
semanas
)
,
e
acompanhados
após
a
suspensão
da
administração
da
droga
.
O
desaparecimento
da
fibrose
(
quando
quantitativamente
avaliada
)
foi
gradual
e
semelhante
para
ambos
os
grupos
.
As
modificações
vistas
à
microscopia
de
luz
e
ao
microscópio
eletrônico
foram
também
semelhantes
.
Estes
resultados
inesperadamente
negativos
diferem
de
outros
modelos
de
fibrose
hepática
e
sugerem
que
o
grau
de
agressão
ao
parênquima
hepático
seja
um
fator
limitante
da
degradação
da
fibrose
que
se
segue
à
remoção
do
agente
causal
.
Assim
sendo
,
não
apenas
a
idade
da
fibrose
,
mas
o
estado
geral
de
alteração
do
órgão
atingido
influenciam
a
degradação
e
remoção
do
colágeno
.
Introduction
Acute
collagen
degradation
is
said
to
occur
when
the
cause
of
a
recently
installed
fibrosis
is
removed
.
Fibrosis
is
then
usually
resorbed
in
less
than
a
month
,
presenting
an
ultrastructural
picture
dominated
by
two
main
changes
:
extra
-
cellular
collagen
breakdown
and
internalization
of
collagen
fragments
,
with
strong
evidences
of
metalloproteinase
activity
(
3
,
11
,
13
,
16
)
.
On
the
other
hand
,
chronic
collagen
degradation
occurs
in
long
-
standing
fibrosis
,
takes
months
or
years
to
be
noticeable
and
exhibits
two
different
ultrastructural
features
:
focal
lytic
and
focal
electron
-
dense
collagen
changes
(
1
,
4
,
5
)
,
with
the
expression
of
metalloproteinases
and
TIMP
being
not
histochemically
demonstrable
(
12
)
.
Progressive
removal
of
excess
fibrous
tissue
,
revealed
by
morphologic
and
/
or
biochemical
evidences
of
collagen
degradation
,
has
long
been
recognized
to
occur
in
both
physiological
and
pathological
conditions
(
15
,
17
)
.
The
morphology
of
collagen
degradation
markedly
differs
when
recent
and
old
fibroses
are
in
the
process
of
being
removed
,
as
observed
in
experimental
hepatic
schistosomiasis
of
mice
(
3
,
4
)
and
during
the
involution
of
the
Seyle
'
s
inflammatory
pouch
in
rats
(
11
)
.
These
differences
,
also
observed
on
hepatosplenic
schistosomiasis
of
man
(
1
,
5
,
12
)
,
have
led
to
the
suggestion
that
the
mechanisms
operating
in
acute
and
chronic
collagen
degradation
may
also
differ
,
since
morphology
and
function
are
closely
related
.
Most
experimental
models
used
for
the
study
of
extra
-
cellular
matrix
degradation
(
metamorphosis
of
the
tadpole
tail
,
the
carrageenin
granuloma
,
involution
of
the
pregnant
rat
uterus
,
treated
acute
schistosomiasis
,
etc
)
are
representatives
of
the
acute
type
of
degradation
.
They
reveal
the
main
differential
ultrastructural
features
mentioned
above
as
typical
of
acute
degradation
(
16
,
13
)
.
To
further
explore
on
the
correlation
between
time
of
fibrosis
installation
and
rapidity
of
fibrosis
degradation
on
one
side
,
and
morphological
findings
on
another
,
an
investigation
was
made
on
early
and
late
stages
of
the
carbon
tetrachloride
-
induced
hepatic
fibrosis
in
rats
,
after
two
different
periods
of
drug
administration
,
followed
by
three
periods
of
observation
after
drug
withdrawal
.
This
study
was
also
considered
to
,
by
exploring
the
subject
of
acute
versus
chronic
collagen
degradation
in
a
well
known
experimental
model
of
hepatic
fibrosis
,
contribute
to
the
model
itself
,
and
stimulate
further
research
on
one
important
topic
of
hepatic
pathology
.
Materials
and
method
Forty
Wistar
rats
of
both
sexes
,
weighing
from
150g
to
300g
,
were
treated
with
carbon
tetrachloride
(
CCl
4
)
,
administered
by
a
gastric
tube
,
according
to
a
standardized
protocol
(
19
)
during
eight
weeks
.
After
that
period
of
treatment
,
the
animals
were
separated
into
two
groups
of
20
animals
each
.
The
administration
of
the
drug
was
stopped
for
the
first
group
and
continued
during
four
more
weeks
for
the
second
group
.
Upon
discontinuation
of
CCl
4
administration
,
in
both
groups
,
the
animals
were
submitted
to
partial
hepatectomy
(
surgical
biopsies
)
72
hours
and
two
weeks
afterwards
.
Twelve
weeks
after
drug
withdrawal
,
all
surviving
animals
were
sacrificed
.
For
the
surgical
procedures
,
the
animals
were
anesthetized
with
ether
,
the
abdomen
was
shaved
and
cleaned
.
Under
sterile
conditions
,
the
abdomen
was
opened
at
the
midline
and
a
small
portion
of
the
liver
(
approximately
250mg
)
was
removed
and
the
surgical
wound
sutured
.
The
fragments
of
the
liver
,
obtained
either
after
surgical
biopsy
or
at
necropsy
,
were
submitted
to
the
following
procedures
:
Histology
Portions
of
the
liver
were
fixed
in
10
%
phosphate
buffered
formalin
and
routinely
embedded
in
paraffin
.
The
5m
-
thick
-
sections
were
stained
with
hematoxylin
and
eosin
and
the
picro
-
sirius
red
method
for
collagen
.
For
semi
-
quantitative
evaluation
of
fibrosis
,
the
Sirius
-
red
stained
slides
were
examined
under
coding
by
two
independent
observers
.
Fibrosis
was
registered
as
mild
,
(
multifocal
thin
septal
and
perisinusoidal
fibrosis
)
,
moderate
(
disseminated
distribution
of
septae
and
bands
of
fibrous
tissue
)
and
severe
,
when
cirrhosis
was
present
.
Each
category
was
sub
-
divided
into
three
numerical
grades
according
to
its
intensity
,
to
facilitate
statistical
analysis
.
Hydroxyproline
measurements
Fragments
of
the
liver
,
weighing
0
.
100mg
-
0
.
200mg
,
were
submitted
to
the
Bergman
&
Loxley
(
6
)
colorimetric
method
for
the
determination
of
hydroxyprolin
content
.
Electron
microscopy
Tiny
fragments
of
the
liver
were
immediately
fixed
in
4
%
glutaraldehyde
in
0
.
2M
sodium
cacodilate
buffer
during
one
hour
and
post
fixed
in
2
%
osmium
tetroxide
.
After
washing
and
dehydration
,
the
pieces
were
embedded
in
Polybed
resin
.
Ultra
-
thin
sections
were
made
with
a
diamond
knife
from
selected
blocks
,
mounted
on
copper
grids
,
contrasted
with
uranyl
acetate
and
lead
citrate
,
and
examined
in
a
Zeiss
EM
-
109
electron
microscope
,
under
50Kv
.
Morphometry
The
quantitative
estimation
of
fibrous
tissue
was
made
on
histological
liver
sections
stained
with
Sirius
red
.
The
methodology
used
was
similar
to
that
previously
described
(
7
,
8
)
.
Briefly
,
the
Leica
Quantimet
Q500MC
(
Leica
Cambridge
,
Cambridge
,
UK
)
Imaging
Workstation
was
used
for
measuring
the
fractional
surface
occupied
by
fibrosis
in
a
total
liver
sectional
area
of
17
x
10
6
mm
2
for
each
of
the
three
biological
points
of
every
animal
from
the
two
groups
.
Statistical
analysis
Variance
analysis
(
Anova
)
and
linear
regression
(
Graphpad
Instat
)
were
used
to
test
the
differences
between
the
means
.
Results
Animals
treated
for
eight
or
12
weeks
presented
variable
degrees
of
hepatic
fibrosis
,
which
tended
to
gradually
disappear
following
discontinuation
of
treatment
,
as
can
be
observed
in
the
Table
.
In
both
cases
a
progressive
decrease
of
fibrosis
was
noted
following
drug
withdrawal
.
Such
progressive
reduction
was
noted
at
the
different
points
of
observation
for
each
group
,
being
statistically
significant
by
the
methods
used
.
Morphometric
and
biochemical
measurements
of
fibrosis
coincided
throughout
,
but
semi
-
quantitative
evaluation
differed
for
Group
I
,
by
not
showing
significant
differences
between
the
means
.
Morphometric
,
semi
-
quantitative
and
biochemical
estimation
of
fibrosis
failed
to
demonstrate
statistically
significant
differences
between
the
groups
.
Histological
and
ultrastructural
findings
were
similar
for
the
two
groups
,
and
will
be
described
together
.
Histologically
,
hepatic
fibrosis
accompanied
by
several
degrees
of
liver
-
cell
changes
was
present
in
all
treated
animals
.
It
varied
from
thin
septa
to
large
bands
of
Sirius
-
red
stained
fibrous
tissue
,
connecting
central
canals
and
portal
spaces
in
various
combinations
,
delimiting
hepatocellular
nodules
of
different
sizes
,
frequently
exhibiting
the
complete
morphological
picture
of
cirrhosis
,
as
illustrated
in
Figure
1
,
which
is
representative
of
the
main
type
of
evolution
in
both
Groups
.
Fibrosis
seen
72
hours
after
discontinuation
of
CCl
4
treatment
appeared
more
compact
and
apparently
augmented
two
weeks
later
,
but
definitively
became
less
evident
later
on
.
Portal
enlargement
due
to
edema
,
infiltration
by
mononuclear
cells
and
proliferation
of
ductal
and
ductular
cells
were
remarkable
72
hours
after
treatment
,
but
almost
disappeared
subsequently
.
Also
,
hepatocellular
ballooning
,
macro
and
micro
-
vacuolar
steatosis
and
lympho
-
macrophagic
infiltration
,
especially
evident
at
the
centro
-
acinar
zone
III
,
72
hours
after
treatment
,
tended
to
disappear
two
weeks
later
.
Perisinusoidal
fibrosis
was
frequently
found
,
sometimes
forming
thin
septa
along
the
parenchymal
acinar
zone
III
.
Such
fibrosis
was
no
longer
observed
in
the
material
from
the
second
biopsy
,
after
discontinuation
of
the
drug
.
However
,
some
degree
of
hepatic
fibrosis
remained
in
all
cases
up
to
the
end
of
experiment
.
Electron
microscopic
changes
affecting
the
interstitial
tissues
were
dominated
by
focal
collagen
alterations
.
In
areas
where
the
collagen
fibers
appeared
parallel
and
packed
,
focal
zones
of
clarification
were
noted
.
In
them
the
fibers
and
fibrils
were
fragmented
into
tiny
portions
of
variable
sizes
and
calibers
(
Figure
2
)
.
Frequently
empty
circular
areas
were
noted
in
zones
of
collagen
breakdown
.
In
spite
of
thorough
search
,
no
evidences
of
internalization
or
phagocytosis
of
collagen
fragments
were
detected
.
Focal
electron
-
dense
deposits
of
a
granular
or
filamentous
material
were
seen
replacing
collagen
fibers
(
Figure
2B
)
.
Sometimes
it
simulated
elastic
fibers
,
but
differed
from
them
for
being
finely
granular
instead
of
homogeneous
and
compact
.
That
change
was
more
frequently
seen
in
animals
treated
for
12
weeks
,
especially
when
examined
12
weeks
after
CCl
4
treatment
.
Degenerative
changes
also
appeared
in
areas
containing
densely
packed
collagen
fibrils
(
Figure
3A
)
.
Quiescent
fibroblasts
and
myofibroblasts
were
seen
in
close
proximity
to
areas
of
collagen
degradation
,
without
a
clear
relationship
other
than
spatial
to
the
areas
of
focal
collagen
degradation
(
Figure
3B
)
.
However
,
a
clear
empty
space
or
halo
was
noted
around
some
connective
tissue
cells
located
away
from
the
areas
showing
focal
degradative
changes
(
Figure
3B
)
,
suggesting
pericellular
lysis
of
the
stroma
.
Morphometric
analysis
showed
no
significant
differences
between
the
groups
(
Table
)
.
However
,
it
did
demonstrate
a
progressive
decrease
in
the
amount
of
fibrosis
,
statistically
significant
,
after
discontinuation
of
CCl
4
administration
,
when
the
interval
points
of
both
groups
were
considered
.
Discussion
In
the
present
experiment
an
attempt
was
made
to
produce
early
and
late
hepatic
fibrosis
by
means
of
CCl
4
intoxication
to
rats
,
in
order
to
comparatively
follow
its
progressive
degradation
after
drug
discontinuation
.
Although
the
degree
of
fibrosis
,
morphologically
evaluated
by
the
extension
and
density
of
collagen
deposition
,
were
higher
in
rats
treated
for
12
weeks
in
comparison
to
those
treated
for
eight
weeks
,
and
more
evident
the
signs
of
collagen
removal
in
the
latter
,
these
differences
did
not
reach
statistical
significance
when
quantitative
methods
were
applied
.
The
three
methods
used
for
evaluation
of
fibrosis
are
adequate
and
usually
yield
concordant
results
.
The
little
discrepancy
seen
with
the
semi
-
quantitative
method
as
compared
to
the
other
methods
,
by
showing
no
statistically
significant
differences
between
the
examination
points
in
Group
I
,
is
to
be
expected
within
the
limitations
of
such
methodology
.
Previously
,
our
group
obtained
concordant
results
with
the
three
methods
(
8
,
20
)
.
Ultrastructural
findings
were
,
likewise
,
essentially
similar
in
both
groups
and
at
their
point
intervals
.
The
overall
picture
was
consistent
with
the
process
of
chronic
collagen
degradation
,
as
seen
in
other
experimental
models
(
4
,
11
)
and
in
long
standing
fibrosis
of
man
(
1
,
5
,
12
)
.
The
reasons
why
no
essential
differences
were
found
in
the
quantitative
and
qualitative
features
of
collagen
degradation
in
the
present
experiments
were
rather
unexpected
.
Probably
the
CCl
4
-
induced
hepatic
fibrosis
in
the
rat
model
,
especially
because
of
its
association
with
cirrhosis
,
is
not
adequate
for
the
study
of
early
collagen
degradation
.
The
effects
of
CCl
4
administration
upon
the
liver
is
long
lasting
after
drug
removal
,
probably
inhibiting
the
immediate
action
of
the
factors
responsible
for
a
more
rapid
collagen
resorption
,
when
the
causal
agent
is
suddenly
removed
.
Persistence
of
collagen
in
tissue
favors
the
process
of
intra
molecular
and
inter
molecular
crossing
link
,
turning
the
fibers
more
resistant
to
enzymatic
digestion
(
10
)
.
In
models
showing
acute
collagen
degradation
,
it
appears
that
the
stimulus
for
fibrogenesis
ceases
rather
suddenly
,
given
rise
to
the
characteristic
degradative
changes
(
3
,
11
,
13
,
16
)
.
That
did
not
seem
to
occur
in
CCl
4
-
treated
animals
.
The
change
in
hepatic
structure
during
cirrhosis
is
a
point
of
considerable
importance
.
Further
studies
may
be
necessary
to
evaluate
how
chronic
damage
to
an
organ
or
structure
may
interfere
with
collagen
degradation
,
even
when
the
cause
of
fibrosis
was
completely
removed
.
Cirrhosis
is
accompanied
by
marked
subversion
of
the
hepatic
structure
,
especially
of
its
vascular
component
(
18
)
.
In
this
regard
it
differs
from
advanced
hepatic
schistosomiasis
,
which
presents
marked
portal
fibrosis
,
but
maintains
normal
parenchymal
structure
.
It
is
interesting
to
note
that
clinical
,
ultrasonographic
and
pathological
studies
have
demonstrated
almost
total
reversal
of
the
liver
pathology
in
hepatosplenic
schistosomiasis
patients
following
specific
treatment
of
the
parasitosis
(
2
,
9
,
14
)
.
On
the
other
hand
,
hepatic
cirrhosis
has
for
long
time
been
considered
irreversible
,
although
some
data
on
the
contrary
are
now
on
record
.
Recently
,
Wanless
et
al
.
(
21
)
made
a
detailed
description
of
the
histological
changes
indicative
of
regression
of
human
cirrhosis
.
They
called
attention
to
a
series
of
findings
comprising
the
"
hepatic
repair
complex
"
observed
in
a
series
of
52
livers
removed
at
transplantation
.
The
majority
of
the
morphological
parameters
they
considered
as
representative
of
hepatic
repair
could
also
be
identified
in
the
present
material
,
confirming
that
the
model
of
CCl
4
-
induced
hepatic
fibrosis
,
so
largely
used
to
study
fibrogenesis
,
can
with
advantage
be
utilized
to
investigate
the
evolution
and
morphology
of
fibrolysis
.
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latent
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11
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Freitas
,
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et
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late
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E
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et
al
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of
metalloproteinases
(
MMP
-
1
and
MMP
-
2
)
and
their
inhibitors
(
TIMP
-
1
and
TIMP
-
2
)
in
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portal
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.
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Trop
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&
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13
,
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.
13
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,
F
.
;
Bricsson
,
J
.
L
.
E
.
&
Glaumann
,
H
.
An
electron
microscopic
study
of
the
post
partum
involution
of
the
rat
uterus
:
with
a
note
on
apparent
crinophagy
of
collagen
.
Virch
.
Arch
.
B
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Cell
Pathol
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,
42
:
271
-
87
,
1983
.
14
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Homeida
,
M
.
A
.
et
al
.
Morbidity
associated
with
Schistosoma
mansoni
infection
as
determined
by
ultrasound
:
a
study
in
Gezira
,
Sudan
.
Am
.
J
.
Trop
.
Med
.
&
Hyg
.
,
39
:
196
-
201
,
1988
.
15
.
Murphy
,
G
.
&
Reynolds
,
J
.
J
.
Extra
cellular
matrix
degradation
.
In
:
Boyce
P
.
M
.
&
Steinmann
,
B
.
(
eds
.
)
Connective
tissue
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its
heritable
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York
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16
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Perez
-
Tamayo
,
R
.
Collagen
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II
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,
22
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142
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57
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[
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Perez
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Tamayo
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R
.
Pathology
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collagen
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:
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review
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Am
.
J
.
Pathol
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,
92
:
509
-
66
,
1978
.
18
.
Popper
,
H
.
Pathologic
aspects
of
cirrhosis
.
Am
.
J
.
Pathol
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,
87
:
228
-
58
,
1977
.
[
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19
.
Rosa
,
H
.
et
al
.
Controlled
production
of
cirrhosis
in
the
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.
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.
Gastroenterol
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,
28
:
39
,
1991
.
20
.
Souza
,
M
.
M
.
et
al
.
Hepatic
capillariasis
in
rats
:
a
new
model
for
testing
anti
-
fibrosis
drugs
.
Braz
.
J
.
Med
.
&
Biol
.
Res
.
,
33
:
1329
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34
,
2000
.
21
.
Wanless
,
I
.
R
.
;
Nakashima
,
E
.
&
Sherman
,
M
.
Regression
of
human
cirrhosis
.
Morphologic
features
and
the
genesis
of
incomplete
septal
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.
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&
Lab
.
Med
.
,
124
:
1599
-
607
,
2000
.
Correspondence
to
Zilton
A
.
Andrade
Laboratório
de
Patologia
Experimental
Centro
de
Pesquisas
Gonçalo
Moniz
Fiocruz
Rua
Valdemar
Falcão
121
CEP
40295
-
001
-
Salvador
-
BA
-
Brasil
Fax
:
(
55
)
(
71
)
356
-
4155
e
-
mail
:
zilton
@
cpqgm
.
fiocruz
.
br
Curso
de
pós
-
graduação
em
Medicina
Interna
-
Universidade
Federal
da
Bahia
;
Centro
de
Pesquisas
Gonçalo
Moniz
(
Fiocruz
)
,
Salvador
(
BA
)
,
Brasil
.
©
2006
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,
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,
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Dezembro
,
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Journal
of
Postgraduate
Medicine
,
Vol
.
46
,
No
.
4
,
October
-
December
,
2000
,
pp
.
265
-
267
Modified
Mesh
Rectopexy
:
A
Study
Bakshi
G
,
Ranka
S
,
Agrawal
S
,
Shetty
SV
Surgery
Department
,
Seth
G
.
S
.
Medical
College
and
Dr
R
.
N
.
Cooper
Hospital
,
Vile
Parle
,
Mumbai
.
Address
for
Correspondence
:
Sadanand
V
Shetty
,
MS
,
A
-
103
,
Rahul
Apartments
,
Opp
.
Shoppers
Stop
,
Mumbai
-
400
058
,
India
.
Code
Number
:
jp00089
Abstract
:
AIM
:
To
evaluate
the
efficacy
of
modified
mesh
rectopexy
for
complete
rectal
prolapse
.
SUBJECT
AND
METHODS
:
In
a
prospective
study
between
1989
-
1998
,
47
patients
(
25
males
and
22
females
)
underwent
modified
mesh
rectopexy
using
a
"
Cross
-
shaped
"
knitted
monofilament
polypropylene
.
They
were
followed
up
for
a
period
of
four
years
postoperatively
.
RESULTS
:
Anatomical
repair
was
achieved
in
all
patients
.
Preoperative
constipation
,
a
complaint
in
22
patients
,
was
relieved
in
13
patients
and
need
for
laxatives
decreased
in
another
four
.
There
were
no
new
cases
of
constipation
.
Sexual
functions
were
not
hampered
irrespective
of
gender
.
The
complications
included
prolonged
ileus
(
4
patients
)
,
faecal
impaction
(
1
)
,
partial
mucosal
prolapse
(
2
)
and
post
-
operative
obstruction
(
2
)
.
There
was
no
recurrence
.
CONCLUSION
:
This
technique
aligns
the
rectum
,
avoids
excessive
mobilisation
and
division
of
lateral
ligaments
thus
preventing
constipation
and
preserving
potency
.
We
recommend
this
technique
for
patients
with
complete
rectal
prolapse
with
up
to
grade
1
,
2
and
3
incontinence
based
on
Browning
and
Parks
classification
.
(
J
Postgrad
Med
2000
;
46
:
265
-
267
)
Key
Words
:
Prolapse
,
Polypropylene
,
Incontinence
,
Constipation
.
Rectal
prolapse
is
a
distressing
condition
especially
when
associated
with
faecal
incontinence
and
constipation
.
It
usually
occurs
in
children
or
elderly
.
Presently
laparoscopic
approach
is
favoured
as
it
has
better
results
especially
in
terms
of
less
post
-
operative
pain
,
shorter
hospital
stay
and
lower
cost
.
1
,
2
.
This
facility
is
not
available
universally
,
nor
the
expertise
needed
for
it
.
Abdominal
approach
is
still
favoured
by
the
conventional
colo
-
rectal
surgeon
who
is
well
versed
with
the
technique
and
its
outcome
.
3
A
10
-
year
experience
with
modified
mesh
rectopexy
(
MMR
)
has
been
reviewed
.
Subjects
and
Methods
This
is
a
prospective
,
single
centre
,
open
study
carried
out
in
47
consecutive
patients
with
reducible
complete
rectal
prolapse
,
from
1989
to
1998
,
to
evaluate
the
efficacy
of
Modified
Mesh
Rectopexy
.
Permission
of
ethics
committee
of
the
hospital
was
taken
.
Complete
rectal
prolapse
was
defined
as
per
Goligher
'
s
criteria
.
4
Of
the
47
patients
25
were
males
and
22
females
.
Patients
with
grade
4
of
Browning
and
Parks
classification
5
of
incontinence
(
Table
1
)
and
ASA
grade
IV
and
V
were
excluded
.
There
was
no
history
suggestive
of
underlying
neuro
-
muscular
abnormality
in
any
patient
and
no
history
of
obstetric
trauma
in
females
.
Sexual
function
in
males
was
assessed
in
terms
of
maintenance
of
erection
,
flaccidity
,
premature
ejaculation
and
retrograde
ejaculation
postoperatively
.
Conception
was
assessed
in
females
as
six
females
were
in
reproductive
age
group
in
the
study
.
Sexual
function
was
not
assessed
in
the
rest
16
female
patients
.
Four
patients
had
a
history
of
surgical
intervention
in
past
.
Thiersch
stitch
was
performed
in
three
patients
and
in
one
patient
abdominal
approach
was
performed
,
details
of
which
were
unavailable
.
Constipation
was
the
commonest
complaint
(
22
patients
)
followed
by
incontinence
(
four
patients
)
other
than
rectal
prolapse
itself
.
All
patients
underwent
MMR
trans
-
abdominally
.
Preoperative
preparation
:
Patient
is
given
soft
diet
two
days
prior
to
the
surgery
.
Metronidazole
is
given
for
bowel
preparation
,
simple
enema
on
night
before
and
day
of
surgery
.
At
induction
,
intravenous
antibiotic
i
.
e
.
third
generation
cephalosporin
with
aminoglycoside
and
metronidazole
were
administered
and
continued
for
48
hours
later
.
Technique
:
The
patient
was
placed
in
moderate
Trendenlenberg
position
after
catheterisation
.
The
rectum
was
mobilised
by
dividing
the
peritoneal
reflection
on
either
side
.
Pre
-
sacral
space
was
entered
and
rectum
mobilised
up
to
the
coccyx
.
Presacral
nerves
and
ureters
were
routinely
identified
and
safeguarded
.
Lateral
ligaments
were
preserved
in
all
cases
.
A
monofilament
knitted
polypropylene
mesh
of
size
15x15
cms
cut
in
the
shape
of
the
cross
as
per
individual
requirement
was
placed
in
presacral
space
(
Figure
1
)
.
The
centre
of
the
mesh
was
anchored
the
rectum
to
the
sacral
promontory
with
few
2
-
0
prolene
sutures
.
The
side
arms
of
the
cross
encircles
three
-
fourth
the
circumference
of
the
rectum
and
upper
and
lower
arms
are
sutured
to
posterior
one
-
fourth
of
the
rectum
with
the
sacrum
(
Figure
2
)
.
Haemostasis
was
achieved
and
suction
drains
were
kept
on
either
side
of
rectum
,
which
were
removed
after
48
-
72
hours
.
Mesh
was
extraperitonilised
by
resuturing
back
the
divided
peritoneal
folds
.
Abdominal
cavity
was
not
drained
.
Laxatives
were
given
routinely
to
all
patients
for
a
period
of
3
-
4
weeks
postoperatively
.
No
colonic
resection
was
performed
.
Pre
and
postoperative
courses
of
patients
were
determined
with
particular
interest
in
terms
of
constipation
,
continence
,
sexual
function
and
recurrence
determined
.
Follow
up
was
obtained
in
terms
of
physical
examination
and
symptoms
on
OPD
basis
for
a
mean
period
of
four
years
.
Results
The
age
range
was
between
21
to
77
years
(
mean
33
years
)
.
Only
nine
patients
were
more
than
60
year
of
age
.
The
procedure
initially
took
a
longer
time
with
experience
it
could
be
completed
within
90
minutes
.
Anatomical
control
of
prolapse
was
obtained
in
all
patients
.
Overall
results
are
depicted
in
Table
2
.
There
was
no
mortality
.
Four
patients
had
prolonged
ileus
.
Two
patients
presented
with
adhesion
-
obstruction
within
six
months
of
surgery
,
and
were
explored
.
In
these
patients
the
omentum
and
the
small
bowel
were
adherent
to
the
peritoneal
suture
line
which
had
given
away
in
pararectal
region
.
These
sutures
were
taken
to
extraperitonealise
the
mesh
.
One
patient
developed
faecal
impaction
which
was
removed
manually
.
He
was
also
given
a
stool
softener
for
a
few
days
later
.
Excision
of
prolapsed
mucosa
was
undertaken
in
the
two
patients
under
local
anaesthesia
.
No
patient
developed
a
leak
or
intra
-
abdominal
sepsis
indicative
of
mesh
infection
or
rejection
.
Partial
mucosal
prolapse
was
encountered
in
two
patients
on
straining
postoperatively
.
Incontinence
was
present
in
three
of
four
patients
,
who
gave
history
of
incontinence
preoperatively
.
There
were
no
new
cases
of
incontinence
.
Postoperatively
constipation
markedly
decreased
in
13
patient
and
need
for
laxatives
went
down
in
another
four
,
in
the
group
of
22
patients
who
presented
with
constipation
.
Sexual
function
was
preserved
in
all
.
There
was
no
evidence
of
premature
or
retrograde
ejaculation
and
patients
were
able
to
maintain
erection
with
out
any
flaccidity
.
Six
female
patients
in
reproductive
group
conceived
within
four
years
after
the
operation
.
Seven
patients
lost
to
follow
up
;
in
the
remaining
there
was
no
recurrent
rectal
prolapse
.
Discussion
In
this
study
most
of
the
patients
were
below
the
age
of
60
years
,
in
contrast
to
other
series
.
6
,
7
Complete
rectal
prolapse
is
thought
to
be
due
to
circumferrential
intussesception
of
the
upper
rectum
and
the
recto
sigmoid
8
or
a
sliding
hernia
according
.
9
,
10
Placing
a
rectangular
mesh
requires
extensive
infero
-
lateral
dissection
and
division
of
lateral
ligaments
.
The
cross
shape
of
the
mesh
,
as
per
the
space
available
in
para
and
retrorectal
region
corrects
the
defect
anatomically
by
anchoring
the
rectum
to
the
sacral
promontory
thus
elevating
,
straightening
and
refastening
it
.
It
avoids
sigmoid
resection
as
in
Frykman
repair
,
11
division
of
lateral
ligaments
and
extensive
dissection
infero
-
laterally
as
in
Ripstein
repair
12
and
Ivalon
sponge
rectopexy
.
13
This
prevents
constipation
14
and
sexual
dysfunction
in
males
.
15
In
this
study
incontinence
persisted
in
three
patient
of
four
postoperatively
.
They
were
young
;
with
a
long
-
standing
prolapse
with
damage
to
the
sphincters
probably
.
6
Even
if
there
was
some
colonic
dismotility
preoperatively
,
16
constipation
improved
significantly
in
13
of
22
patients
who
were
constipated
preoperatively
.
Constipation
did
not
develop
in
the
rest
25
patients
due
to
preservation
of
lateral
ligaments
,
division
of
which
may
interfere
with
colonic
motility
and
the
anchorage
provided
by
lower
limb
of
the
cross
,
thus
preventing
an
acute
angulation
of
the
rectum
.
14
There
was
no
recurrence
upto
a
follow
up
of
four
years
.
We
did
not
include
the
partial
mucosal
prolapse
under
recurrence
as
reported
by
Boccasanta
et
al
.
17
Patients
with
chronic
prolapse
have
excoriation
of
perianal
skin
,
proctitis
and
are
more
liable
to
infection
due
to
transmigration
of
microorganisms
especially
anaerobic
and
gram
negative
ones
.
Mesh
,
a
foreign
body
is
prone
to
this
infection
.
Hence
,
pre
-
operative
and
post
-
operative
antibiotics
coverage
is
required
.
In
conclusion
,
MMR
is
a
safe
and
effective
technique
as
it
does
not
involve
division
of
lateral
ligaments
,
sigmoid
resection
and
suture
lines
.
Also
need
of
sophisticated
instruments
and
expertise
of
laparoscopy
are
avoided
.
The
only
drawback
is
the
learning
curve
which
once
mastered
can
be
performed
as
an
effective
alternative
to
the
standard
mesh
rectopexy
with
comparable
results
.
This
procedure
will
add
another
shot
to
the
colo
-
rectal
surgeons
armamentarium
to
deal
with
this
condition
.
It
gives
results
better
then
to
other
studies
who
have
reported
a
recurrence
of
3
-
8
%
.
17
,
18
It
restores
the
prolapse
to
its
normal
position
preventing
neurological
damage
and
obliterating
the
deep
pouch
.
It
however
does
not
repair
the
lax
levators
which
is
not
always
necessary
and
also
do
not
strengthen
the
patulous
anal
orifice
.
We
recommend
plastic
repair
of
these
cases
along
with
MMR
.
References
Boccasanta
P
,
Venturi
M
,
Reitano
MC
,
Salamina
G
,
Rosati
R
,
Montorsi
M
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al
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Laparotomic
vs
.
laparoscopic
rectopexy
in
complete
rectal
prolapse
.
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Surg
1999
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415
-
419
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Himpens
J
,
Calliere
GB
,
Bruyns
J
,
Vertruyen
M
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Laparoscopic
rectopexy
according
to
Wells
.
Surgical
Endoscopy
1999
;
13
:
139
-
141
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Aitola
PT
,
Hiltunen
KM
,
Matikainen
MJ
.
Functional
results
of
operative
treatment
of
rectal
prolapse
over
an
11
-
year
period
:
emphasis
on
transabdominal
approach
.
Dis
Colon
Rectum
1999
;
42
:
655
-
660
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Goligher
J
,
Duthie
H
,
Nixon
H
.
Surgery
of
the
Anus
,
Rectum
and
Colon
.
5
th
Edition
.
London
:
Bailliere
Tindall
;
1992
.
Browning
GG
,
Parks
AG
.
Postanal
repair
for
neuropathic
faecal
incontinence
:
Correlation
of
clinical
result
and
anal
canal
pressures
.
Br
J
Surg
1983
;
70
:
101
-
104
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Keighley
MR
,
Fielding
JW
,
Alexander
-
Williams
J
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of
Marlex
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abdominal
rectopexy
for
rectal
prolapse
in
100
consecutive
patients
.
Br
J
Surg
1983
;
70
:
229
-
232
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Morgan
CN
,
Porter
NH
,
Klugman
DJ
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Ivalon
(
polyvinyl
alcohol
)
sponge
in
the
repair
of
complete
rectal
prolapse
.
Br
J
Surg
1972
;
59
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841
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846
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Broden
B
,
Snellman
B
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of
the
rectum
studied
with
cineradiography
.
A
contribution
to
the
discussion
of
causative
mechanism
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Dis
Colon
Rectum
1968
;
11
:
330
-
347
.
Devadhar
,
DSC
.
A
new
concept
of
mechanism
and
treatment
of
rectal
procidentia
.
Diseases
of
the
Colon
and
Rectum
1965
;
8
:
75
-
78
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Moschocowitz
AV
.
The
cure
of
prolapse
of
the
rectum
-
the
pathogenesis
,
anatomy
and
cure
of
prolapse
of
the
rectum
.
Surg
Gynecol
Obstet
1912
;
15
:
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Frykman
H
M
.
Abdominal
rectopexy
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primary
sigmoid
resection
for
rectal
procidentia
.
Am
J
Surg
1955
;
19
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780
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784
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Ripstein
CB
,
Canter
B
.
Etiology
and
Surgical
therapy
of
massive
prolapse
of
the
rectum
.
Ann
Surg
1963
;
157
:
259
-
263
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Wells
C
.
New
operation
for
rectal
prolapse
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Proc
R
Soc
Med
1959
;
52
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602
-
607
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Sayfan
J
,
Pinho
M
,
Alexander
-
Williams
J
,
Keighley
MR
.
Sutured
posterior
abdominal
rectopexy
with
sigmoidectomy
compared
with
Marlex
rectopexy
for
rectal
prolapse
.
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J
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1990
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-
145
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Yakut
M
,
Kaymakcioglu
N
,
Sinsek
A
,
Tan
A
,
Sen
D
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Surgical
treatment
of
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prolapse
.
A
retrospective
analysis
of
94
cases
.
Int
Surg
1998
;
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-
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Brown
AJ
,
Horgan
AF
,
Anderson
JH
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Mckee
RF
,
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IG
.
Colonic
motility
is
abnormal
before
surgery
for
rectal
prolapse
.
Br
J
Surg
1999
;
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:
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-
266
.
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P
,
Rosati
R
,
Venturi
M
,
Cioffi
U
,
De
Simone
M
,
Montorsi
M
.
Surgical
treatment
of
complete
rectal
prolapse
:
results
of
abdominal
and
perineal
approaches
.
J
Laparoendosc
Adv
Surg
Tech
A
1999
;
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:
235
238
.
Novell
JR
,
Osborne
MJ
,
Winslet
MC
.
Prospective
randomised
trial
of
ivalon
sponge
versus
sutured
rectopexy
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J
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906
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[
African
Crop
Science
Journal
,
Vol
.
9
.
No
.
2
,
pp
.
411
-
419
THE
EFFECT
OF
MAIZE
STOVER
USED
AS
MULCH
ON
TERMITE
DAMAGE
TO
MAIZE
AND
ACTIVITY
OF
PREDATORY
ANTS
M
.
B
.
SEKAMATTE
,
M
.
W
.
OGENGA
-
LATIGO
1
and
A
.
RUSSELL
-
SMITH
2
Namulonge
Agricultural
and
Animal
Production
Research
Institute
,
P
.
O
.
Box
7084
,
Kampala
,
Uganda
1
Department
of
Crop
Science
,
Makerere
University
,
P
.
O
.
Box
7062
,
Kampala
,
Uganda
2
Natural
Resources
Institute
,
University
of
Greenwich
,
Central
Avenue
,
Chatham
Maritime
,
Kent
ME4
4TB
,
U
.
K
.
1
(
Received
30
August
,
2000
;
accepted
9
November
,
2000
)
Code
Number
:
CS01023
INTRODUCTION
Cultural
control
of
termites
in
agriculture
and
forestry
is
attracting
renewed
interest
following
the
ban
on
use
of
persistent
organochlorine
(
cyclodiene
)
insecticides
(
Logan
et
al
.
,
1990
)
.
Non
-
chemical
control
involves
methods
which
attempt
,
without
the
use
of
commercial
pesticides
,
to
(
i
)
prevent
termite
access
to
plants
,
(
ii
)
reduce
termite
numbers
in
the
vicinity
of
plants
,
or
(
iii
)
reduce
susceptibility
/
increase
resistance
of
the
plants
themselves
(
Logan
et
al
.
,
1990
)
.
Published
research
on
any
of
these
methods
is
scarce
,
although
numerous
cultural
procedures
have
been
suggested
,
including
measures
to
enhance
plant
vigour
and
to
manipulate
termite
numbers
and
behaviour
.
The
benefits
of
application
of
mulch
to
the
soil
surface
are
widely
appreciated
in
tropical
agriculture
(
Schroth
et
al
.
,
1992
)
but
the
possibility
of
protecting
crops
against
termite
damage
by
use
of
mulches
has
remained
controversial
.
Logan
et
al
.
(
1990
)
reviewed
the
conflicting
evidence
for
the
use
of
crop
residues
and
other
organic
mulches
to
control
termites
.
Two
conflicting
theories
have
been
advanced
;
(
i
)
that
removal
of
residues
and
other
debris
from
the
field
will
reduce
potential
food
supplies
and
hence
lead
to
a
reduction
in
termite
numbers
and
subsequent
attack
;
and
(
ii
)
that
leaving
the
residues
in
the
field
or
adding
further
organic
matter
will
provide
alternative
food
to
which
the
termites
will
be
attracted
,
thereby
reducing
levels
of
attack
on
crops
.
Gold
et
al
.
(
1991
)
tested
mulches
of
plants
with
insect
repellent
properties
(
Neem
and
Ipomea
fistulosa
)
and
observed
significant
protection
to
groundnuts
(
Arachis
hypogaea
(
L
.
)
)
.
This
study
and
other
earlier
experiments
did
not
relate
the
quantity
of
mulch
used
with
the
levels
of
termite
attack
on
groundnuts
.
In
general
,
however
,
published
studies
reporting
the
significance
of
non
insecticidal
mulches
such
as
maize
stover
on
termite
attack
on
crops
are
lacking
.
The
significance
of
crop
residues
on
termite
activity
in
field
crops
is
also
poorly
understood
.
Dawkins
(
1949
)
gathered
empirical
evidence
in
Uganda
that
repeated
mulching
of
tree
nurseries
with
grass
,
over
a
period
of
one
year
,
greatly
reduced
termite
foraging
.
Although
not
strictly
applied
as
mulch
,
tree
trunks
,
branches
and
woody
remnants
are
used
in
the
Philippines
and
Sierra
Leone
to
reduce
termite
attack
in
rice
fields
(
Litsinger
et
al
.
,
1978
;
Raymundo
,
1986
)
.
Leaves
of
the
savanna
tree
Vitex
doniana
buried
alongside
cassava
cuttings
in
Uganda
,
attracted
termites
away
from
cassava
,
reduced
termite
damage
and
led
to
increased
sprouting
(
Epila
and
Ruyooka
,
1988
)
.
The
use
of
wooden
logs
in
the
Philippines
aside
,
none
of
the
published
works
directly
deals
with
non
-
insecticidal
mulches
and
levels
of
termite
damage
to
crops
.
On
the
basis
of
the
published
literature
and
the
authors
observations
in
recent
field
surveys
in
Uganda
(
Sekamatte
et
al
.
-
unpublished
data
)
,
the
present
study
was
instituted
with
two
objectives
.
First
to
determine
the
impact
of
different
quantities
of
mulch
on
termite
damage
to
maize
and
second
,
to
assess
the
impact
of
mulching
on
relative
incidence
of
predatory
ant
species
and
their
role
in
regulation
of
termite
activity
in
the
maize
cropping
system
.
MATERIALS
AND
METHODS
Study
site
.
Field
experiments
were
conducted
at
Namulonge
Agricultural
and
Animal
Production
Research
Institute
(
NAARI
)
,
near
Kampala
at
latitude
32
°
27
E
and
longitude
0
°
32
N
,
and
a
mean
elevation
of
about
1200
m
above
sea
level
.
There
are
two
planting
seasons
;
the
first
,
and
normally
more
reliable
one
,
occurs
from
March
to
June
and
the
second
from
September
to
November
,
with
mean
annual
level
of
1300
mm
.
Maximum
temperatures
are
in
the
range
of
25
-
30
°
C
and
minimum
temperatures
range
between
13
-
17
°
C
.
Effect
of
mulching
on
termite
damage
to
maize
.
Five
levels
of
maize
stover
mulch
were
used
as
treatments
.
These
were
:
0
kg
(
control
)
,
10
kg
,
20
kg
,
30
kg
and
40
kg
per
plot
.
The
stover
amounts
were
used
to
provide
a
surface
coverage
of
0
%
,
10
%
,
40
%
,
60
%
and
80
%
,
respectively
,
in
five
8
m
x
8
m
plots
.
Maize
(
var
.
Longe
-
1
)
was
planted
in
the
plots
at
a
spacing
of
75
cm
between
plant
rows
and
30
cm
between
plants
within
rows
.
Two
maize
seeds
were
planted
per
hill
but
thinned
to
one
plant
per
hill
14
days
after
crop
emergence
.
The
experiments
were
planted
28
April
1998
and
17
October
1999
.
Two
weeks
after
seedling
emergence
the
number
of
standing
plants
per
plot
was
determined
on
the
middle
five
rows
of
each
plot
.
The
maize
stover
treatments
were
applied
3
weeks
after
seedling
emergence
to
cover
the
middle
five
rows
in
the
respective
plots
.
The
treatments
were
laid
out
in
a
completely
randomised
block
design
replicated
three
and
four
times
in
the
1998
and
1999
cropping
seasons
respectively
.
Assessment
of
termite
damage
and
ant
activity
.
To
termite
damage
on
maize
in
different
plots
,
both
destructive
and
non
-
destructive
sampling
methods
were
used
.
Destructive
sampling
was
carried
out
by
randomly
uprooting
ten
maize
plants
using
a
hand
hoe
from
each
plot
.
This
type
of
sampling
was
done
once
at
seedling
,
silking
,
green
cob
,
and
dry
plant
stages
.
The
first
destructive
sampling
was
done
at
4
weeks
after
crop
emergence
.
Caution
was
taken
not
to
destroy
the
root
system
while
uprooting
the
plants
.
Presence
or
absence
of
termites
attacking
roots
in
the
different
treatments
was
recorded
on
each
sampling
occasion
.
In
the
case
of
non
-
destructive
sampling
40
plants
,
randomly
selected
from
within
the
middle
10
rows
of
each
plot
were
carefully
examined
and
scored
for
termite
damage
once
every
two
weeks
till
dry
cob
stage
.
Termite
damage
to
roots
,
stems
,
leaves
and
cob
was
scored
using
a
scale
of
1
-
5
,
where
1
=
no
damage
,
2
=
1
-
25
%
,
3
=
26
-
50
%
,
4
=
51
-
75
%
and
5
=
76
-
100
%
.
A
damage
rating
of
5
in
most
cases
caused
plants
to
lodge
.
During
non
-
destructive
sampling
for
termites
,
maize
plants
with
evidently
established
colonies
of
Lepisiota
or
Myrmicaria
or
more
than
three
ants
nesting
or
foraging
within
15
cm
diameter
around
a
sampled
maize
plant
stem
base
were
recorded
in
-
situ
.
Ant
activity
was
then
expressed
as
the
percentage
of
maize
plants
with
ant
nests
out
of
40
sampled
plants
per
plot
.
Statistical
analysis
.
Treatment
effects
,
percentage
of
attacked
plants
and
damage
scores
on
roots
and
stem
base
were
determined
by
ANOVA
procedures
.
Data
were
subjected
to
square
root
transformation
and
conformed
to
assumptions
of
ANOVA
as
dictated
by
tests
of
normality
(
PROC
.
GENSTAT
4
.
1
)
and
tests
of
homogeneity
of
variance
.
Data
for
compound
damage
indices
were
analysed
for
individual
sample
dates
.
Other
data
were
summarised
as
seasonal
means
,
which
were
tested
for
normality
and
constant
variance
as
above
and
subjected
to
ANOVA
using
procedures
for
completely
randomised
block
design
using
the
MSTATC
software
.
To
further
test
for
the
effects
of
mulching
,
orthogonal
comparisons
were
made
and
regression
analysis
(
GENSTAT
)
used
to
test
for
linear
relationships
of
mulch
quantity
on
the
response
variables
.
The
means
were
separated
by
Fisher
s
Least
Significant
Difference
test
at
P
=
0
.
05
.
RESULTS
Above
ground
termite
damage
on
maize
.
The
extent
of
termite
damage
to
maize
was
significantly
(
P
Table
1
.
Average
percentages
of
plants
with
damage
caused
by
termites
in
plots
of
maize
affected
by
mulching
with
different
quantities
of
maize
stover
at
Namulonge
,
first
cropping
season
in
1998
and
second
cropping
season
in
1999
Mulch
quantity
(
kg
ha
-
1
)
Compound
damage
index
Plants
with
cut
stems
Plants
lodged
Root
damage
score
First
cropping
season
1998
0
42
.
29
±
10
.
2a
27
.
70
±
2
.
3a
3
.
46
±
0
.
9
1
.
94
±
0
.
02a
10
42
.
50
±
8
.
9a
18
.
27
±
2
.
3a
4
.
22
±
0
.
9
1
.
80
±
0
.
19a
20
32
.
42
±
6
.
8a
10
.
55
±
2
.
3b
3
.
11
±
0
.
9
1
.
86
±
0
.
19a
30
17
.
30
±
4
.
3b
9
.
54
±
2
.
7b
3
.
00
±
0
.
9
1
.
25
±
0
.
05b
40
13
.
13
±
4
.
3b
4
.
34
±
2
.
1c
2
.
17
±
0
.
9
1
.
17
±
0
.
05b
Second
cropping
season
1999
0
82
.
60
±
8
.
9a
70
.
23
±
7
.
7a
18
.
50
±
2
.
1a
2
.
18
±
0
.
06a
10
77
.
68
±
9
.
2a
57
.
60
±
5
.
2b
13
.
3
±
1
.
9a
2
.
21
±
0
.
06a
20
54
.
80
±
5
.
4b
23
.
33
±
2
.
6c
4
.
60
±
1
.
3b
1
.
98
±
0
.
06a
30
29
.
66
±
3
.
2c
21
.
10
±
2
.
6c
4
.
33
±
1
.
3b
1
.
24
±
0
.
06b
40
27
.
46
±
3
.
2c
18
.
32
±
2
.
6c
3
.
19
±
1
.
9b
1
.
02
±
0
.
06b
For
each
cropping
season
means
within
a
column
followed
by
the
same
letter
(
s
)
are
not
significantly
different
at
P
=
0
.
05
;
LSD
In
the
second
cropping
season
,
a
similar
pattern
was
observed
in
termite
damage
to
plants
under
different
levels
of
mulch
.
However
,
the
effect
of
mulching
was
more
pronounced
than
in
the
first
cropping
season
possibly
because
of
a
higher
termite
infestation
in
the
experimental
field
.
All
levels
of
mulch
led
to
significantly
lower
termite
damage
on
maize
compared
to
unmulched
plots
.
The
reduction
in
compound
index
during
this
season
in
mulched
plots
(
compared
to
unmulched
plots
)
ranged
between
6
.
5
and
100
%
.
Reduction
in
percentage
of
plants
with
cut
stems
ranged
between
21
.
6
%
and
100
%
.
For
both
parameters
,
however
,
only
the
30
kg
and
40
kg
mulch
per
plot
caused
significantly
(
P
In
both
cropping
seasons
,
no
significant
(
P
=
0
.
05
)
differences
in
scores
of
root
damage
were
observed
between
unmulched
plots
and
plots
with
10
kg
and
20
kg
amount
of
mulch
.
Root
damage
scores
in
plots
with
10
kg
and
20
kg
mulch
levels
were
,
however
,
significantly
higher
than
scores
in
plots
with
30
kg
and
40
kg
mulch
cover
.
Root
damage
in
the
40
kg
mulch
level
plots
in
the
two
cropping
seasons
was
77
%
and
53
%
lower
than
in
the
unmulched
plots
,
respectively
.
There
were
no
significant
differences
between
plant
lodging
among
treatments
in
the
first
cropping
season
.
In
the
second
cropping
season
,
however
,
percentages
of
lodged
maize
plants
were
significantly
(
P
=
0
.
05
)
lower
in
plots
with
30
kg
,
and
40
kg
mulch
cover
than
in
the
other
treatments
.
A
significant
negative
relationship
between
compound
damage
index
and
amount
of
mulch
was
observed
in
the
two
cropping
seasons
.
The
relationship
between
quantity
of
mulch
and
compound
damage
in
the
first
cropping
season
was
given
by
36
.
85
0
.
1804x
(
r
=
0
.
69
)
and
by
15
.
95
0
.
0265x
(
r
=
0
.
95
)
in
the
second
cropping
season
.
Below
-
ground
termite
infestation
of
maize
.
The
main
termite
species
infesting
maize
were
Microtermes
for
most
of
the
season
with
minor
incidences
of
species
from
other
genera
in
the
post
silking
stages
of
the
maize
crop
.
Mean
rates
of
infestation
on
roots
of
maize
under
different
mulch
treatments
were
relatively
low
and
ranged
from
16
.
5
to
23
.
5
%
and
8
.
3
to
17
.
8
%
in
1998
and
1999
cropping
seasons
,
respectively
(
Fig
1
)
.
The
differences
were
,
however
,
not
statistically
significant
.
Effect
of
mulching
maize
on
incidence
of
predatory
ants
.
Ant
species
encountered
in
the
experimental
plots
at
Namulonge
were
mainly
Myrmicaria
sp
.
,
and
Lepisiota
sp
.
Mean
incidence
of
predatory
ants
at
different
crop
growth
stages
in
mulched
and
unmulched
maize
plots
over
the
two
cropping
seasons
are
presented
in
Figure
2
.
In
the
first
cropping
season
,
percentage
of
plants
with
nesting
ants
on
the
first
two
sampling
occasions
at
28
and
42
days
after
crop
emergence
(
DAE
)
was
low
but
higher
in
mulched
than
in
unmulched
plots
(
Fig
.
2
)
.
The
effects
of
mulching
during
this
season
began
to
show
after
42
DAE
.
Eight
weeks
after
planting
(
56
DAE
)
,
mulched
plots
had
comparatively
higher
numbers
of
maize
plants
with
ant
nests
compared
to
unmulched
plots
(
Fig
.
2
)
.
On
subsequent
sampling
dates
at
70
,
84
,
98
and
102
DAE
,
wide
differences
were
observed
among
the
levels
of
mulch
.
On
most
of
sampling
dates
,
the
percentage
of
plants
with
nesting
ants
in
plots
with
10
kg
per
plot
mulch
cover
was
closer
to
that
in
unmulched
plots
.
On
the
other
hand
,
a
higher
percentage
of
plants
with
ant
nests
were
consistently
recorded
in
plots
with
higher
quantities
of
mulch
(
20
,
30
and
40
kg
per
plot
)
than
in
plots
with
10
kg
or
without
mulch
cover
although
the
differences
between
the
30
and
40
kg
treatments
was
not
that
great
(
Fig
.
2
)
.
No
clear
distinctions
were
observed
between
the
20
kg
and
30
kg
levels
of
mulch
cover
in
percentage
plants
with
nesting
ants
over
the
four
sample
dates
.
A
sharp
decline
in
ant
nesting
was
observed
between
84
DAE
at
which
peak
ant
nesting
was
recorded
and
98
DAE
but
the
trend
among
treatments
maintained
the
same
pattern
.
(
Fig
.
2
)
Despite
the
missing
data
at
42
and
102
DAE
,
during
the
second
cropping
season
,
a
similar
trend
in
ant
nesting
near
maize
plants
was
observed
.
Overall
,
however
,
the
nesting
of
ants
was
lower
compared
to
the
previous
season
(
Fig
.
2
)
.
Peak
incidence
of
ant
nests
in
maize
plots
during
the
second
cropping
season
was
recorded
at
98
DAE
and
plots
with
higher
quantities
of
mulch
had
significantly
(
P
Analysis
of
variance
of
the
percentage
of
plants
with
ant
nests
at
peak
incidence
indicated
highly
significant
(
P
2
=
0
.
8723
)
and
y
=
0
.
0283x
0
.
133
(
r
2
=
0
.
911
)
in
the
1998
and
1999
cropping
seasons
,
respectively
.
A
highly
significant
negative
relationship
was
also
obtained
between
percentage
ant
nesting
and
damage
parameters
of
termites
on
maize
.
The
relationship
between
percentage
of
damaged
plants
and
ant
count
was
expressed
as
y
=
16
.
87
0
.
361x
(
r
=
0
.
88
)
and
y
=
23
.
33
0
.
426x
(
r
=
0
.
92
)
in
the
two
cropping
seasons
,
respectively
.
Table
2
.
Average
percentage
of
plants
hosting
ant
nests
at
peak
incidence
in
maize
plots
mulched
with
different
quantities
of
stover
during
the
first
rainy
season
in
1998
and
second
rainy
season
in
1999
Quantity
of
mulch
(
kg
ha
-
1
)
Cropping
season
First
rains
1998
Second
rains
1999
0
0
.
00
±
0
.
0c
1
.
23
±
0
.
2c
0
2
.
00
±
0
.
3c
1
.
34
±
0
.
1c
20
11
.
3
±
3
.
7b
9
.
40
±
2
.
3ab
30
23
.
02
±
4
.
2a
10
.
85
±
1
.
9ab
40
23
.
77
±
5
.
5a
13
.
30
±
1
.
7a
C
.
V
(
%
)
16
.
81
23
.
11
Means
within
a
column
followed
by
the
same
letter
(
s
)
are
not
significantly
different
at
P
=
0
.
05
LSD
Maize
grain
yield
.
Maize
grain
yields
in
the
two
cropping
seasons
are
presented
in
Figure
3
.
In
the
first
cropping
season
,
maize
grain
yield
in
unmulched
plots
was
not
significantly
lower
than
yield
in
plots
mulched
with
10
and
20
kg
per
plot
.
Plots
with
30
kg
and
40
kg
per
plot
of
mulch
yielded
significantly
(
P
=
0
.
05
)
better
than
the
other
treatments
but
did
not
differ
significantly
between
themselves
(
Fig
.
3
)
.
An
almost
similar
pattern
was
obtained
in
yields
during
the
second
cropping
season
but
no
significant
differences
were
obtained
(
Fig
.
3
)
.
The
yield
gain
(
above
yields
from
unmulched
plots
)
caused
by
the
30
kg
and
40
kg
mulch
cover
during
the
first
cropping
season
were
34
.
4
%
and
35
.
7
%
,
respectively
.
DISCUSSION
In
the
present
study
,
provision
of
maize
stover
as
mulches
above
4
.
7
t
.
ha
-
1
significantly
reduced
Macrotermes
and
Pseudacanthotermes
(
Macrotermitinae
)
attack
on
maize
.
Coaton
(
1950
)
also
observed
that
mulching
crops
with
various
items
such
as
hay
,
manure
,
wood
shavings
or
threshed
maize
cobs
dramatically
reduced
attack
by
termites
.
Wardell
(
1987
)
makes
a
similar
observations
in
forestry
and
plantations
systems
and
recommended
leaving
as
much
debris
as
possible
on
the
site
after
clearing
,
to
ring
weed
rather
than
clean
-
weed
young
stands
and
to
use
dried
out
stoloniferous
and
rhizomatous
material
from
planting
holes
as
mulch
.
Although
Microtermes
species
were
more
abundant
in
mulched
than
unmulched
plots
,
the
differences
were
not
significant
.
By
contrast
,
Macrotermes
and
Pseudacanthotermes
species
were
significantly
less
abundant
in
mulched
than
in
unmulched
plots
.
Two
factors
are
presumed
to
be
responsible
for
the
observed
responses
:
(
1
)
the
higher
concentration
of
food
resource
for
the
termites
,
and
(
2
)
enhanced
predation
by
ants
within
the
microhabitat
created
by
mulches
.
In
Table
1
the
level
of
termite
attack
on
maize
was
shown
to
be
lower
in
plots
with
higher
quantities
of
mulch
.
The
significant
negative
relationship
between
proportions
of
damaged
plants
and
amount
of
mulch
indicated
that
the
two
were
inversely
related
.
This
supports
the
long
established
view
that
leaving
crop
residues
in
the
field
or
adding
further
organic
matter
will
provide
alternative
food
to
which
the
termites
will
be
attracted
thereby
reducing
levels
of
attack
(
Logan
et
al
.
,
1990
)
.
Further
support
for
this
view
is
provided
by
the
results
in
Table
1
which
indicate
no
or
slight
differences
in
termite
attack
to
plants
between
plots
without
mulch
and
plots
with
low
levels
of
mulch
.
The
reduced
termite
damage
on
the
other
hand
,
could
have
been
a
result
of
enhanced
predation
of
termites
by
ants
beneath
mulch
.
The
results
in
Figure
2
indicated
a
steady
progression
of
predatory
ant
activity
across
the
season
with
significantly
higher
ant
abundance
in
mulched
plots
compared
to
unmulched
plots
at
peak
incidence
.
The
significant
positive
relationship
obtained
between
quantity
of
mulch
and
mean
number
of
plants
with
ant
nests
provided
clear
support
for
increased
predation
while
that
between
quantity
of
mulch
and
termite
attack
indicated
the
positive
effect
of
predation
on
termites
.
While
it
is
also
possible
that
both
improved
food
sources
for
termites
and
enhanced
predation
termites
accounted
for
our
observations
in
this
experiment
,
it
is
difficult
to
distinguish
the
effects
of
the
two
mechanisms
.
Our
results
on
termite
predation
by
ants
in
mulched
plots
provide
evidence
on
the
importance
of
natural
control
by
the
local
predators
Lepisiota
sp
.
and
Myrmicaria
species
.
The
results
further
suggest
that
the
benefits
of
the
enemies
hypothesis
(
Root
,
1973
)
widely
acknowledged
in
mixed
cropping
(
Altieri
and
Letourneau
,
1984
;
Andow
,
1991
)
could
be
applied
to
termites
in
maize
monoculture
through
mulching
.
The
higher
abundance
of
ant
predators
in
mulched
plots
observed
in
this
study
could
be
attributed
to
an
improved
micro
-
climate
for
the
ants
under
mulch
,
presumably
associated
with
increased
humidity
and
shade
near
the
soil
.
On
the
other
hand
,
it
could
be
the
higher
numbers
of
termite
prey
under
mulch
,
which
attracted
ants
in
mulched
plots
.
It
is
highly
possible
that
interplay
of
the
two
mechanisms
occurred
although
on
basis
of
the
present
data
,
a
distinction
between
them
cannot
be
clearly
demonstrated
.
These
results
suggest
that
it
is
the
relationship
between
quantity
of
mulch
available
in
the
field
and
the
duration
of
mulch
material
in
relation
to
maturity
period
of
the
crop
that
might
be
important
.
On
basis
of
the
present
results
,
a
theoretical
distinction
emerges
on
the
effect
of
non
-
insecticidal
mulches
between
perennial
crops
and
annual
crops
.
Reasonable
proportions
of
the
30
kg
and
40
kg
of
maize
stover
used
as
treatments
in
both
cropping
seasons
of
this
study
,
were
still
available
in
the
respective
plots
at
crop
maturity
.
This
suggested
that
the
maize
plants
in
these
plots
were
constantly
mulched
all
through
the
stages
susceptible
to
termite
attack
.
Reports
of
maize
residue
effects
as
reservoirs
of
lepidopteran
stem
borer
larvae
have
been
published
(
Macharia
,
1989
;
Saxena
et
al
.
,
1989
)
.
On
the
other
hand
,
a
range
of
benefits
of
applying
organic
material
as
mulch
to
the
soil
has
also
been
reported
(
Webster
and
Wilson
,
1966
))
.
They
include
the
reduction
of
soil
erosion
hazards
,
better
infiltration
of
rain
water
and
less
evaporation
,
lower
soil
temperatures
,
supply
of
organic
matter
and
nutrients
,
higher
biological
activity
,
better
root
growth
and
suppression
of
weeds
(
Schroth
et
al
.
,
1992
)
.
Adetola
et
al
.
(
1995
)
also
reported
higher
densities
of
detrivore
and
phytophage
micro
arthropods
in
maize
plots
mulched
with
stover
compared
to
those
in
bare
fallow
and
unmulched
control
plots
.
Undoubtedly
,
a
combination
of
a
range
of
factors
could
have
been
responsible
for
the
significantly
greater
yields
of
maize
in
plots
with
high
amounts
of
mulch
in
the
first
cropping
season
.
In
recent
studies
involving
ant
baits
,
Sekamatte
et
al
.
(
unpubl
.
)
,
recorded
significant
increase
in
maize
yields
due
to
improvement
in
termite
predation
by
Lepisiota
and
Myrmicaria
species
.
The
results
suggested
the
important
role
of
predators
in
reducing
maize
yield
loss
by
termites
.
Under
the
smallholder
conditions
in
Uganda
,
maize
stover
is
available
and
,
considering
the
effort
needed
to
mulch
the
relatively
small
hectarage
compared
to
the
benefits
(
mulching
)
could
be
viewed
as
a
justifiable
practice
for
subsistence
farmers
.
However
,
until
more
critical
experiments
are
conducted
in
which
the
effect
of
mulching
is
isolated
from
effects
due
to
predation
and
also
to
altered
soil
environments
such
as
moisture
and
nutrients
,
the
importance
of
mulch
as
alternative
food
for
termites
remains
anecdotal
.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We
would
like
to
thank
our
colleagues
Jimmy
Akono
,
James
Kayongo
and
Solomon
Kaboyo
for
their
assistance
with
the
field
work
.
This
publication
is
an
output
from
a
research
project
funded
by
the
United
Kingdom
Department
of
International
Development
(
DFID
)
for
the
benefit
of
developing
countries
.
Project
R6653
,
Crop
Protection
Research
Programme
.
The
views
expressed
are
not
necessarily
those
of
DFID
.
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W
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G
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Cultural
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T
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G
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1990
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Termite
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forestry
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-
chemical
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R
.
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Wiley
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732
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J
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A
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Price
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E
.
C
.
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R
.
T
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1978
.
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.
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3
:
15
-
16
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Macharia
,
M
.
1989
.
Yield
losses
in
maize
due
to
Buseola
fusca
and
its
survival
in
crop
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.
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,
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1985
.
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Pearson
,
E
.
O
.
1958
.
The
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.
335
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S
.
A
.
1986
.
Traditional
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.
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R
.
B
.
1973
.
Organisation
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-
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:
The
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(
Brassica
oleracea
)
.
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,
K
.
N
.
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Reddy
,
K
.
V
.
S
.
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Omolo
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E
.
O
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Pala
-
Okeyo
,
A
.
and
Ngode
,
L
.
1989
.
Integrated
pest
management
,
Pilot
trials
.
Annual
Report
International
Centre
of
Insect
Physiology
and
Ecology
.
pp
.
20
-
21
.
Schroth
,
G
.
,
Zech
,
W
.
and
Heinmann
,
G
.
1992
.
Mulch
decomposition
under
agroforestry
conditions
in
a
sub
-
humid
tropical
savanna
processes
and
influence
of
perennial
plants
.
Plant
and
Soil
147
:
1
-
11
.
Wardell
,
D
.
A
.
1987
.
Control
of
termites
in
nurseries
and
young
plantations
in
Africa
:
established
practices
and
alternative
courses
of
action
.
Commonwealth
Forestry
Review
66
:
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-
89
.
Webster
,
C
.
C
.
and
Wilson
,
P
.
N
.
1966
.
Agriculture
in
the
Tropics
.
Longmans
,
London
.
The
following
images
related
to
this
document
are
available
:
Line
drawing
images
[
cs01023b
.
gif
]
[
cs01023a
.
gif
]
[
I
Hahn
-
Meitner
-
Institut
Berlin
,
Glienicker
Str
.
100
D
-
14109
Berlin
,
Germany
II
Inst
.
of
Advanced
Studies
,
Australian
National
University
,
Canberra
,
Australia
ABSTRACT
The
past
half
century
has
seen
an
explosive
growth
of
the
discipline
that
is
characterized
by
the
deposition
of
localized
high
energy
densities
in
solid
matter
,
by
means
of
energetic
ions
produced
e
.
g
.
in
particle
accelerators
.
First
the
fundamentals
of
Ion
-
Solid
Interaction
are
outlined
.
A
brief
overview
is
given
about
the
basic
energy
transfer
mechanisms
and
the
consequences
of
ion
impact
into
solids
,
such
as
scattering
,
sputtering
and
radiation
damage
.
The
latter
gives
rise
to
numerous
changes
in
the
material
'
s
physical
and
chemical
properties
,
part
of
which
has
proven
to
be
detrimental
,
and
part
of
which
is
beneficial
for
technological
applications
.
Though
meanwhile
a
good
general
understanding
of
this
discipline
has
been
obtained
,
there
are
still
plenty
of
lacks
of
details
in
our
knowledge
.
Some
representative
examples
are
given
.
As
a
conclusion
of
all
these
points
,
one
may
say
that
,
in
spite
of
its
age
,
Ion
-
Solid
Interaction
is
still
a
challenging
scientifical
field
,
and
it
still
offers
lots
of
promising
applications
.
I
.
INTRODUCTION
More
than
half
a
century
has
passed
already
since
the
advancement
of
the
field
of
ion
-
solid
interaction
to
the
state
-
of
art
that
we
know
today
.
A
fully
developed
science
has
emerged
since
then
,
and
many
effects
which
were
just
considered
as
objects
of
pioneering
research
just
a
few
decades
ago
,
now
belong
to
the
well
-
established
academic
material
upon
which
many
preparatory
or
analytic
techniques
in
material
'
s
science
are
based
,
or
which
are
even
used
for
commercial
applications
.
Nevertheless
,
in
spite
of
all
these
achievements
,
there
are
still
astonishingly
large
gaps
to
be
found
in
many
areas
,
if
one
only
scratches
a
little
bit
deeper
below
the
well
-
established
surface
.
This
represents
a
challenge
as
well
for
those
colleagues
working
already
since
long
in
this
area
,
as
for
newcomers
in
this
field
.
In
this
paper
,
a
short
overview
is
given
about
this
field
and
its
applications
(
with
some
special
emphasis
on
ion
-
polymer
interactions
and
electronic
applications
)
,
and
thereafter
some
open
questions
are
posed
which
still
deserve
an
answer
by
future
researchers
.
II
.
FUNDAMENTALS
OF
ION
-
SOLID
INTERACTIONS
Sources
of
Energetic
Ions
.
The
basic
requirement
for
performing
any
study
in
this
field
are
,
of
course
,
energetic
ions
.
They
can
be
obtained
in
many
ways
,
e
.
g
.
by
making
use
of
radioactive
sources
such
as
a
particle
or
fission
product
emitters
,
or
by
exploiting
nuclear
reactions
e
.
g
.
with
neutrons
from
a
reactor
,
that
result
in
the
emission
of
protons
,
tritons
,
a
particles
or
fission
products
,
depending
on
the
type
of
irradiated
material
.
Other
particle
ions
become
available
by
bombardment
of
swift
heavy
ions
(
SHI
)
onto
appropriate
target
materials
,
via
various
types
of
nuclear
reactions
such
as
fusion
reactions
,
spallation
reactions
,
etc
.
Finally
,
for
obtaining
particles
with
the
highest
energies
,
one
even
can
make
use
of
the
sporadically
arriving
cosmic
rays
.
The
easiest
way
nowadays
,
however
,
to
obtain
particles
with
sufficient
fluence
in
a
"
convenient
"
energy
range
of
,
let
us
say
,
some
keV
to
some
GeV
,
is
to
produce
them
in
an
appropriate
particle
accelerator
.
There
are
hundreds
of
smaller
accelerators
available
in
the
keV
to
lower
MeV
energy
range
,
and
nearly
a
dozen
accelerators
which
provide
ionic
particles
with
upper
energies
of
several
hundred
MeV
to
a
few
GeV
.
A
typical
example
of
the
latter
ones
is
the
heavy
ion
accelerator
"
ISL
"
of
the
HMI
Berlin
which
produces
beams
of
ions
ranging
from
hydrogen
to
gold
,
with
maximum
energies
of
~
70
MeV
for
hydrogen
and
~
400
MeV
for
gold
.
The
maximum
charge
of
the
ions
is
in
the
order
of
26
+
,
and
the
typical
fluences
that
can
be
provided
with
these
ions
are
in
the
order
of
10
9
to
10
10
ions
/
cm
2
s
.
In
one
of
the
irradiation
facilities
,
the
particle
beam
can
be
scanned
over
a
maximum
area
of
3
cm
x
3
cm
,
and
targets
can
be
moved
across
this
spot
as
well
horizontally
as
vertically
,
thus
covering
maximum
target
areas
of
30
cm
x
30
cm
in
situ
.
In
another
facility
,
which
is
devoted
to
the
irradiation
of
polymer
foils
,
the
particle
beam
can
even
be
scanned
horizontally
up
to
±
15
cm
,
whereas
the
target
foil
is
fed
vertically
through
the
scanned
beam
.
In
this
way
,
foils
of
lengths
of
hundreds
of
meters
can
be
irradiated
in
one
run
.
To
obtain
a
good
homogeneity
of
the
irradiation
,
the
particle
current
can
be
stabilized
within
±
1
%
.
Stopping
Power
[
1
]
.
Once
an
energetic
particle
beam
hits
matter
,
it
transfers
energy
to
the
latter
.
In
contrast
to
the
interaction
of
,
e
.
g
.
energetic
electrons
or
photons
with
matter
,
the
main
peculiarity
of
energetic
ion
impact
is
the
extremely
high
localized
density
of
the
energy
transferred
to
the
target
by
the
particles
.
In
this
way
,
solids
may
receive
for
a
very
short
time
(
~
10
-
17
to
10
-
15
s
)
within
a
very
tiny
volume
(
~
10
-
17
to
10
-
16
cm
3
)
the
same
energy
density
which
else
is
only
found
in
the
vicinity
of
an
exploding
hydrogen
bomb
,
by
the
impact
of
just
one
energetic
heavy
ion
.
The
energy
deposition
is
commonly
described
by
the
,,
stopping
power
"
dE
/
dx
which
gives
the
energy
transfer
per
pathlength
of
a
particle
along
its
trajectory
.
It
has
been
found
convenient
to
split
up
the
particle
stopping
into
two
basic
energy
transfer
mechanisms
,
that
are
dominated
by
atomic
collisions
with
the
target
atoms
(
,,
nuclear
"
energy
transfer
)
,
and
by
excitation
and
ionization
of
the
target
electrons
(
,,
electronic
"
energy
transfer
)
.
The
total
stopping
power
is
the
sum
of
both
components
.
Its
reciprocal
integral
defines
the
projectile
'
s
total
range
.
Both
stopping
powers
increase
with
increasing
energy
until
they
reach
a
maximum
value
,
and
thereafter
decrease
.
The
electronic
energy
transfer
reaches
its
peak
value
at
energies
which
are
orders
of
magnitude
higher
than
the
nuclear
stopping
maximum
is
.
Light
ions
at
any
energy
,
and
energetic
heavy
ions
(
with
stopping
powers
in
the
keV
/
Å
range
)
deliver
much
more
energy
via
electronic
excitation
than
by
nuclear
collisions
;
for
low
energy
heavy
ions
(
with
stopping
powers
in
the
eV
/
Å
range
)
the
nuclear
energy
transfer
dominates
.
The
nuclear
interactions
lead
to
transfer
of
kinetic
energy
to
the
knock
-
on
target
atoms
which
might
be
displaced
from
their
original
positions
(
if
the
transferred
energy
exceeds
the
displacement
energy
)
,
and
thus
might
initiate
structural
defects
(
e
.
g
.
vacancies
and
interstitials
in
crystalline
materials
)
or
,
in
the
case
of
molecular
targets
,
their
radiochemical
destruction
,
if
the
transferred
energy
exceeds
the
displacement
energy
.
Only
upon
very
high
electronic
energy
transfer
by
heavy
ions
,
metallic
targets
exhibit
structural
changes
due
to
phase
transitions
.
Electronic
energy
transfer
,
if
sufficiently
small
,
does
not
show
here
any
remarkable
effect
but
often
plays
a
dominant
role
in
insulators
,
where
it
may
lead
to
the
formation
of
structural
defects
(
e
.
g
.
of
F
centers
)
,
to
radical
formation
,
to
bond
breaking
,
or
to
the
formation
of
novel
bonds
.
This
constitutes
the
base
of
radiochemistry
with
energetic
ions
.
Since
~
20
years
there
exist
well
-
established
computer
codes
for
the
simulation
of
range
and
damage
distributions
in
solids
even
in
3
dimensions
,
the
most
known
one
among
them
being
the
,,
TRIM
"
code
by
Biersack
(
"
TRIM
"
=
Transport
and
Range
of
Ions
in
Matter
)
[
2
]
.
In
many
circumstances
these
codes
have
an
accuracy
of
a
few
percent
and
therefore
will
always
be
of
general
guidance
use
-
particularly
in
determining
approximate
ranges
and
stopping
powers
.
However
,
with
TRIM
for
example
,
many
and
sometimes
dominant
secondary
effects
are
not
accounted
for
,
including
damage
annealing
,
radiochemical
changes
,
diffusion
,
etc
.
In
particular
there
is
no
crystallinity
,
no
real
point
defects
,
and
no
free
surface
,
so
that
a
good
deal
of
caution
and
understanding
is
called
for
in
more
complex
projectile
/
target
interactions
.
Specifically
two
mechanisms
,
particle
activated
prompt
anneal
(
"
PAPA
"
)
and
diffusion
assisted
delayed
anneal
(
"
DADA
"
)
[
3
]
,
should
always
be
taken
into
account
upon
the
impact
of
energetic
ions
onto
matter
,
as
they
are
good
to
explain
many
seeming
disagreements
between
simple
predictions
and
observations
,
e
.
g
.
in
minerals
.
Whereas
the
individual
nuclear
collisions
lead
to
a
deviation
of
the
projectile
'
s
flight
direction
from
its
original
one
,
this
is
not
the
case
for
electronic
energy
transfer
.
Hence
,
for
projectiles
with
dominant
nuclear
energy
transfer
,
the
particles
will
follow
a
zig
-
zag
movement
until
they
come
to
rest
.
This
gives
rise
to
a
spatially
extended
damage
distribution
.
For
contrast
,
projectiles
with
dominant
electronic
energy
transfer
(
light
ions
at
any
energy
,
or
very
swift
heavy
ions
)
follow
a
straight
flight
path
.
The
damaged
zone
around
that
ion
trajectory
is
called
the
"
latent
ion
track
"
.
Typical
track
lengths
of
SHIs
are
in
the
order
of
30
to
130
µm
;
the
zone
of
maximum
damage
along
this
track
,
the
so
-
called
"
ion
track
core
"
,
has
a
typical
radius
of
3
to
8
nm
.
The
latter
is
surrounded
by
a
radial
zone
of
greatly
reduced
damage
of
up
to
~
½
µm
radius
,
the
so
-
called
"
penumbra
"
.
Ion
Radiochemistry
of
Organic
Matter
.
It
appears
that
different
transferred
electronic
energy
densities
lead
to
different
types
of
defects
,
those
ones
formed
after
low
energy
ion
impact
being
less
stable
than
those
ones
initiated
by
more
energetic
ions
.
Consequently
a
great
part
of
the
electronic
damage
induced
by
low
energy
projectiles
at
ambient
temperature
often
anneals
after
the
irradiation
,
so
that
eventually
the
more
stable
but
originally
much
less
abundant
nuclear
defects
finally
dominate
,
in
spite
of
10
to
1000
-
fold
more
overall
energy
spent
for
the
electronic
energy
transfer
.
This
effect
vanishes
,
however
,
for
more
energetic
projectiles
,
apparently
due
to
more
stable
types
of
electronic
defects
dominating
.
Specifically
for
polymeric
targets
,
the
bond
breaking
and
bond
formation
effects
are
known
as
"
chain
scissioning
"
and
"
cross
-
linking
"
.
Of
special
importance
is
the
fact
that
ion
-
induced
chain
scissioning
of
polymers
upon
energetic
ion
impact
leads
to
an
enhanced
etchability
of
many
ion
-
irradiated
synthetic
polymers
.
In
other
words
,
etchant
attack
of
such
an
irradiated
polymer
foil
leads
to
the
formation
of
nano
-
or
micropores
,
the
so
-
called
"
etched
tracks
"
.
These
pores
can
have
different
shapes
(
cylindrical
,
conical
,
hyperboloidal
,
funnel
-
like
etc
.
)
,
which
can
be
tailored
to
some
extent
by
the
proper
choice
of
the
corresponding
parameters
such
as
the
projectile
'
s
energy
transfer
,
the
type
of
polymer
,
the
type
of
etchant
,
etc
.
It
must
be
mentioned
at
this
occasion
that
etched
tracks
can
also
be
formed
in
silicon
oxides
and
-
oxynitrides
,
and
many
minerals
such
as
mica
.
Polymers
that
respond
with
cross
-
linking
onto
ion
impact
will
show
a
reduced
etching
rate
so
that
etching
leads
here
to
a
gradual
protrusion
of
the
ion
track
out
of
the
receeding
sample
surface
.
There
are
other
peculiar
effects
to
report
,
e
.
g
.
the
ion
irradiation
of
organometals
which
releases
a
narrow
trail
of
metal
atoms
(
or
oxides
,
sulfides
,
etc
.
,
depending
on
the
type
of
material
irradiated
)
along
their
tracks
,
which
eventually
are
electrically
conducting
.
This
means
,
ion
irradiation
imposes
an
anisotropy
onto
the
electric
properties
of
such
materials
.
SHI
irradiation
of
polysilanes
leads
to
the
formation
of
SiC
rods
along
the
tracks
,
and
SHI
irradiation
of
diamond
or
fullerite
leads
to
the
formation
of
conducting
carbonaceous
nanotracks
.
III
.
APPLICATIONS
OF
LOW
ENERGY
ION
IMPACT
ONTO
SOLIDS
Technological
applications
[
4
]
.
Low
energy
ion
beams
were
used
in
electronics
for
semiconductor
doping
through
polymeric
photoresist
masks
already
since
the
50th
of
the
past
century
.
Both
negative
resists
(
where
the
solubility
of
the
exposed
resist
decreases
after
ion
exposure
due
to
ion
-
induced
cross
-
linking
)
and
positive
resist
(
where
the
solubility
of
the
exposed
resist
increases
after
exposure
due
to
ion
-
induced
chain
scissioning
)
were
employed
.
Ion
irradiation
enhances
the
resist
'
s
thermal
stability
and
oxidation
resistance
considerably
,
which
else
withstands
only
about
150
to
200
C
.
(
The
same
method
is
also
applied
to
make
polymer
films
in
space
more
radiation
resistant
.
)
Since
recently
also
the
possibility
to
produce
the
lithographic
masks
by
ion
beams
came
into
the
focus
of
interest
,
as
in
this
way
the
typical
line
-
widths
of
the
patterns
can
be
reduced
from
~
0
.
4
µm
for
deep
UV
or
~
0
.
25
µm
for
electron
or
X
-
ray
lithography
to
about
~
0
.
10
µm
,
due
to
the
negligible
lateral
scattering
of
energetic
ions
.
Here
,
focussed
ion
beams
with
computer
-
controlled
positioning
may
gain
an
important
role
,
as
they
also
become
a
favoured
tool
for
the
production
of
novel
Micro
-
ElectroMechanical
Systems
(
"
MEMS
"
)
.
For
example
,
cogs
,
gears
and
other
structures
with
typical
lateral
dimensions
of
a
few
µm
have
been
produced
by
proton
beams
of
a
few
MeV
energy
and
currents
in
the
order
of
1
to
100
pA
.
It
was
found
that
corrosion
protection
of
metals
is
possible
by
means
of
high
fluence
irradiation
with
,
e
.
g
.
nitrogen
ions
,
thus
forming
highly
resistive
surface
nitride
layers
that
also
withstand
tribological
load
much
longer
.
Also
the
adhesion
of
immiscible
layers
of
,
e
.
g
.
metals
and
polymers
could
be
increased
considerably
,
by
thorough
ion
beam
mixing
,
or
reactive
ion
implantation
,
substrate
pre
-
sputtering
,
or
ion
-
beam
assisted
deposition
(
"
IBAD
"
)
of
materials
.
Furthermore
optical
applications
of
low
energy
ion
beams
,
essentially
for
waveguide
production
,
have
become
familiar
.
Surface
Effects
.
Both
the
projectiles
and
the
knock
-
on
target
atoms
give
rise
to
a
number
of
effects
in
the
surface
region
of
an
irradiated
target
,
which
are
exploited
in
material
analysis
.
If
a
projectile
ion
entering
a
solid
is
backscattered
from
a
near
-
surface
atom
by
a
large
angle
collision
,
its
(
direction
-
dependent
)
energy
loss
sensitively
depends
on
both
the
depth
of
the
collision
and
the
target
atom
mass
.
Therefore
,
the
so
-
called
"
Rutherford
Back
Scattering
"
(
RBS
)
technique
has
become
one
of
the
favoured
analytical
methods
for
determining
the
composition
of
solid
target
and
their
depth
distributions
.
This
technique
holds
,
however
,
only
for
heavy
target
atoms
.
If
instead
,
the
depth
distribution
of
light
atoms
is
of
interest
,
then
it
is
preferable
to
knock
-
on
these
atoms
in
such
a
way
that
they
escape
from
the
target
through
the
surface
in
forward
direction
(
which
implies
that
the
projectiles
must
hit
the
target
surface
under
a
non
-
normal
direction
)
.
This
gives
rise
to
the
so
-
called
"
Elastic
Recoil
Detection
"
(
ERD
)
analysis
.
The
release
of
surface
atoms
by
the
impact
of
an
energetic
ion
is
called
"
sputtering
"
.
One
has
to
distinguish
between
nuclear
sputtering
,
that
scales
with
the
nuclear
energy
transfer
for
any
target
,
and
electronic
sputtering
,
which
takes
place
above
some
threshold
energy
upon
the
impact
of
very
energetic
heavy
ions
onto
e
.
g
.
metallic
targets
,
or
upon
the
impact
of
an
ion
of
any
energy
onto
insulators
.
The
recording
of
the
mass
distribution
of
sputtered
atoms
in
dependence
of
the
amount
of
removed
surface
material
and
of
the
position
on
the
sample
surface
is
used
in
the
so
-
called
"
Secondary
Ion
Mass
Spectrometry
"
(
SIMS
)
for
the
determination
of
the
3D
sample
composition
.
As
the
impact
of
highly
energetic
ions
onto
molecular
insulators
does
not
only
release
small
fragments
from
the
very
point
of
impact
in
a
jet
-
like
manner
,
but
also
larger
fragments
and
even
intact
molecules
from
points
more
far
away
via
shock
-
wave
mechanisms
,
this
sputter
technique
has
become
a
well
-
established
method
to
analyze
complex
organic
matter
(
Plasma
Desorption
Mass
Spectrometry
,
"
PDMS
"
)
.
An
effect
frequently
associated
with
high
energy
sputtering
is
"
cratering
"
,
i
.
e
.
the
formation
of
a
surface
depletion
in
the
region
of
ion
impact
.
Due
to
a
highly
complex
interaction
with
the
material
'
s
elastic
and
plastic
properties
,
craters
often
coexist
with
nearby
hillocks
,
and
sometimes
hillocks
have
even
been
observed
alone
[
4
]
.
As
the
material
'
s
elastic
and
plastic
properties
are
correlated
with
the
final
nanotopological
structures
in
a
well
-
defined
way
,
it
has
been
proposed
to
establish
on
this
basis
a
technique
to
probe
the
material
'
s
mechanical
surface
properties
in
the
nanometric
scale
[
4
]
.
Ion
beam
modification
of
polymeric
surfaces
for
medical
applications
has
gained
importance
for
various
reasons
.
On
the
one
hand
,
the
material
'
s
biocompatibility
can
be
improved
;
and
on
the
other
hand
the
irradiation
of
materials
can
enhance
the
bioadhesion
,
by
enriching
their
surfaces
with
polar
moieties
,
especially
carboxyl
groups
,
which
seem
capable
of
bonding
most
strongly
to
living
biomass
.
Anticoagulant
drugs
such
as
heparin
can
be
ion
-
grafted
on
the
surface
of
protheses
of
all
kinds
inserted
in
the
human
organism
,
to
avoid
clotting
of
blood
on
their
surfaces
.
Finally
,
material
surfaces
can
also
be
sterilized
by
ion
irradiation
.
Applications
of
high
energy
ion
impact
onto
solids
Applications
of
Latent
Tracks
in
Solids
[
4
,
5
]
.
Latent
tracks
in
solids
are
not
yet
applied
commercially
,
however
three
major
possibilities
show
up
for
their
future
use
:
the
exploitation
of
the
material
'
s
radiochemical
changes
,
of
structural
changes
along
latent
tracks
,
and
the
use
of
ion
-
induced
phase
transitions
.
Radiochemical
changes
along
the
ion
tracks
in
,
e
.
g
.
polycarbonate
lead
to
an
increase
of
-
OH
and
other
groups
to
which
protons
from
the
ambient
readily
bond
transiently
,
thus
giving
rise
to
a
slightly
enhanced
conductivity
.
This
signifies
that
such
a
material
acts
like
a
hydrogen
sensor
.
SHI
irradiation
of
polysilanes
leads
,
after
post
-
annealing
,
to
the
formation
of
long
crystalline
silicon
carbide
needles
,
which
might
be
used
for
AFM
cantilevers
or
,
after
appropriate
doping
,
as
field
emitters
.
SHI
irradiation
of
organometals
produces
narrow
extended
zones
of
metal
(
or
metal
oxide
,
sulfide
,
etc
.
,
depending
on
the
type
of
organometal
)
precipitates
,
thus
giving
rise
to
(
semi
)
conducting
tracks
.
The
latter
ones
,
if
produced
on
top
of
a
silicon
wafer
,
form
the
so
-
called
"
TEMIMOS
"
(
=
tunable
electronic
material
with
irradiated
organo
-
metal
on
semiconductor
)
structures
,
the
peculiar
electronic
effects
of
which
our
group
is
just
examining
and
is
presented
in
Fig
.
4
.
Ion
-
induced
structural
changes
modify
the
transport
and
trapping
properties
of
diffusing
impurities
along
the
latent
ion
tracks
,
hence
also
their
solubility
and
diffusitivity
.
This
can
be
exploited
e
.
g
.
in
filtering
and
separation
technology
.
Doping
of
latent
tracks
with
electronically
active
materials
(
or
with
their
precursors
,
if
some
subsequent
in
-
situ
chemical
reaction
follows
)
would
also
lead
to
novel
electronic
devices
.
Though
this
has
been
suggested
already
a
decade
ago
[
6
]
,
it
has
,
however
,
not
yet
been
realized
.
Ion
-
induced
phase
transitions
,
which
are
suitable
for
technological
applications
are
known
for
the
carbon
allotropes
fullerite
and
diamond
.
Their
irradiation
yielding
a
non
-
graphitic
,
sp2
-
rich
conducting
phase
,
one
might
construct
field
emission
displays
,
FETs
,
or
novel
types
of
electronic
devices
(
"
TEAMS
"
structures
=
tunable
electronically
anisotropic
materials
on
semiconductors
)
with
them
.
Applications
of
Etched
Tracks
in
Solids
[
3
,
4
]
.
Since
it
was
discovered
that
fossil
tracks
become
visible
in
rocks
after
polishing
and
etching
,
much
use
has
been
made
of
this
by
geoscientists
in
applications
to
geochronology
-
-
the
determination
of
mineral
and
therefore
rock
ages
from
the
chemical
etching
behaviour
,
particular
the
lengths
of
both
spontaneous
and
induced
fission
fragment
tracks
.
There
are
also
applications
in
prospecting
work
for
uranium
,
and
for
hydrocarbon
deposits
in
sedimentary
basins
.
More
recently
so
-
called
T
(
t
)
models
for
track
formation
and
annealing
have
been
used
in
an
attractive
effort
to
extract
information
on
the
geothermometric
history
of
the
lithosphere
.
Unfortunately
it
has
now
been
shown
,
and
independently
confirmed
,
that
there
is
a
very
real
influence
of
an
ignored
and
basic
physical
feature
,
namely
ambient
pressure
,
on
track
length
shrinkage
during
annealing
-
the
so
-
called
WVC
(
Wendt
-
Vidal
-
Chadderton
)
effect
[
7
]
.
It
appears
that
a
fundamental
reconsideration
of
this
application
must
now
be
carried
out
.
Another
major
breakthrough
was
obtained
when
it
was
found
that
most
synthetic
polymer
foils
are
excellent
carrier
materials
for
etched
tracks
[
8
]
.
This
inexpensive
and
simple
method
for
the
detection
of
energetic
particles
allowed
many
poorer
fellow
scientists
from
developing
countries
and
their
students
to
contribute
with
important
work
to
the
progress
of
various
disciplines
.
For
example
,
in
dosimetry
etched
tracks
have
become
important
probes
.
From
the
observed
track
parameters
,
one
can
largely
deduce
the
track
-
forming
ion
specie
and
its
energy
;
observed
track
distributions
in
,
e
.
g
.
autoradiographic
images
allow
one
to
determine
the
direction
and
the
strength
of
particle
radiation
sources
.
Therefore
track
recording
has
also
become
commonplace
in
radioprotection
,
medicine
,
and
biology
.
Apart
from
this
,
many
ion
track
-
etched
membranes
are
used
in
filtration
,
which
is
needed
for
clean
rooms
,
medicine
and
pharmaceutics
,
separation
technology
,
and
respiration
protection
.
They
are
also
used
as
inexpensive
low
-
background
catcher
foils
for
ecological
studies
.
Furthermore
,
micro
-
or
nanoporous
foils
are
successfully
used
for
hospital
treatment
of
burns
and
wounds
,
for
gas
pervaporation
,
and
in
analytical
sciences
.
Ion
track
-
etched
membranes
are
often
preferred
to
simpler
and
cheaper
filter
foils
,
due
to
their
uniform
thickness
,
inertness
to
toxic
environments
,
a
high
tensile
strength
,
large
porosity
,
nearly
unit
tortuosity
(
ratio
of
the
pore
length
to
membrane
thickness
)
,
and
very
large
sizes
.
Only
with
the
onset
of
interest
in
nanoscience
one
started
to
incorporate
matter
in
etched
tracks
,
to
form
in
this
easy
way
nanowires
,
nanofibrilles
,
or
nanotubules
,
shown
in
Fig
.
1
.
Depending
on
the
incorporated
material
,
various
applications
can
be
obtained
.
For
example
,
by
the
grafting
of
thermoresponsive
gels
onto
the
walls
of
etched
tracks
one
obtains
nanovalves
that
open
or
close
at
a
preset
temperature
.
This
can
be
used
for
intelligent
in
-
vivo
drug
delivery
.
By
addition
of
,
e
.
g
.
anatase
(
a
TiO
2
phase
)
nanoparticles
to
the
track
walls
,
the
tracks
develop
photosterilizing
properties
which
can
be
used
for
wound
treatment
,
water
purification
or
packing
of
food
and
flowers
.
Also
the
deposition
of
dispersed
(
semi
)
conducting
nanoclusters
onto
the
walls
of
etched
tracks
make
sense
,
as
the
choice
of
the
cluster
-
to
-
cluster
distance
determines
the
layer
resistivity
within
many
orders
of
magnitude
from
insulating
to
conducting
,
and
it
also
allows
for
various
current
/
voltage
and
current
/
temperature
correlations
of
that
track
-
based
nanoresistor
,
due
to
the
different
conductivity
mechanisms
involved
[
9
]
.
The
incorporation
of
nanoclusters
(
of
Ag
,
Au
,
CdS
,
...
)
in
etched
tracks
has
been
widely
applied
in
the
novel
"
TEMIPOS
"
(
=
tunable
electronic
material
with
pores
in
oxide
on
semiconductor
)
and
"
TEMIPOS
"
(
=
tunable
electronic
material
with
irradiated
polymers
on
semiconductor
)
structures
which
stand
in
their
behaviour
somewhat
in
between
tunable
resistors
,
capacitors
,
conventional
and
Esaki
diodes
,
field
effect
,
bipolar
,
and
unijunction
transistors
,
and
sensors
,
depending
on
their
production
and
operation
parameters
,
as
shown
in
Figs
.
2
-
4
.
Various
materials
have
already
been
-
or
still
will
be
-
embedded
in
etched
tracks
that
act
as
nano
-
sensors
for
physical
(
e
.
g
.
temperature
,
pressure
,
light
intensity
,
magnetic
field
intensity
,
...
)
,
chemical
(
e
.
g
.
moisture
,
alcohol
,
acetone
,
sugar
,
...
)
,
or
biological
(
germs
,
viruses
,
hormons
,
enzymes
,
...
)
parameters
.
Checkerboard
-
like
contacting
on
both
sides
of
such
a
suitably
treated
microporous
foil
will
enable
one
in
future
to
perform
2D
mapping
of
the
required
sensor
signals
.
By
sandwiching
the
track
-
forming
material
with
layers
of
other
materials
(
e
.
g
.
producing
a
Si
-
polymer
bilayer
structure
)
,
by
multiple
sequential
axial
or
radial
material
deposition
into
etched
tracks
,
and
by
combination
with
other
well
-
known
procedures
such
as
metal
evaporation
onto
the
surfaces
of
these
microporous
foils
,
one
can
produce
highly
complex
structures
which
may
serve
as
micro
-
or
nanocondensors
,
micromagnets
,
GMR
structures
,
diodes
,
FETs
,
LEDs
,
TEMPOS
structures
,
nanosensors
that
discriminate
several
species
simultaneously
,
optical
filters
,
etc
.
IV
.
PERSPECTIVES
OF
ION
-
SOLID
INTERACTION
Within
the
past
half
century
the
field
of
ion
/
solid
interaction
has
been
pretty
well
developed
,
and
quite
a
number
of
applications
has
been
found
.
But
even
now
many
details
are
still
lacking
,
which
is
considered
as
a
challenge
for
the
scientists
of
the
next
50
years
.
Below
there
are
given
just
a
few
examples
.
There
exist
elaborate
theories
on
the
electronic
stopping
power
[
1
,
3
]
.
However
,
more
complicated
cases
,
involving
e
.
g
.
the
collision
parameter
dependence
and
channelling
effects
,
have
not
yet
been
treated
analytically
[
11
]
.
Though
Bragg
'
s
rule
is
well
-
established
for
low
energy
ion
impact
even
onto
targets
as
complex
as
polymers
[
9
]
,
it
is
not
necessarily
satisfied
in
such
targets
for
highly
energetic
projectiles
with
their
dominating
electronic
energy
transfer
.
The
reason
for
this
is
that
the
energy
transfer
sensitively
depends
on
the
electron
/
phonon
coupling
,
which
itself
is
determined
by
the
type
and
structure
of
the
atomic
sublattices
.
For
example
,
in
ionic
crystals
such
as
CaF
2
or
LiF
,
the
phonons
are
strongly
bunched
along
the
<
100
>
axes
,
so
that
the
cation
sublattice
is
almost
totally
protected
against
energy
transfer
.
Hence
the
anionic
sublattice
accepts
nearly
all
the
electronically
transferred
energy
,
and
consequently
all
the
radiation
damage
[
7
]
.
In
such
cases
,
specifically
in
alkali
and
alkali
earth
halides
,
the
Bragg
Rule
is
completely
violated
,
even
with
the
advanced
"
CAB
"
model
[
10
]
incorporated
.
Finally
,
there
have
hardly
ever
been
performed
detailed
measurements
on
the
influence
of
directional
effects
in
crystals
on
the
electronic
stopping
power
of
SHIs
.
What
happens
upon
ion
/
solid
interaction
,
when
the
target
size
approaches
zero
?
Collision
cascades
in
small
targets
,
such
as
free
-
standing
or
embedded
nanoparticles
,
will
behave
completely
different
from
cascades
in
semi
-
infinite
matter
for
which
well
-
established
computer
codes
exist
since
long
[
2
]
.
Surface
effects
will
dominate
and
probably
lead
to
enhanced
sputtering
.
The
increased
phonon
scattering
at
the
particle
boundaries
should
give
rise
to
higher
damage
,
but
,
on
the
other
hand
,
the
larger
and
close
surface
area
of
such
particles
should
act
as
a
sink
for
defects
that
will
anneal
easier
.
Diffusing
species
should
readily
be
trapped
at
the
particle
surface
so
that
one
should
expect
a
gettering
effect
of
the
particle
environment
.
Pronounced
and
beautiful
craters
have
been
observed
after
swift
heavy
ion
impact
onto
insulators
.
It
is
,
however
,
not
yet
known
whether
also
keV
particle
impact
onto
insulating
surfaces
(
e
.
g
.
of
polymers
)
results
in
cratering
.
Impedance
Spectroscopy
is
a
well
-
established
field
in
electrical
engineering
.
It
is
convenient
to
depict
both
the
frequency
dependent
resistance
R
(
w
)
and
the
capacitance
C
(
w
)
of
a
material
in
the
complex
plane
via
:
Z
=
R
(
w
)
-
i
X
(
w
)
,
with
X
(
w
)
=
[
w
C
(
w
)
]
-
1
.
(
Specifically
for
the
complex
dielectricity
coefficient
e
=
e
'
-
i
e
"
of
dielectric
materials
,
one
obtains
in
this
way
the
famous
"
Cole
-
Cole
plot
"
.
)
Usually
one
finds
semicircles
or
straight
lines
in
these
diagrams
which
can
be
modelled
with
corresponding
equivalent
circuits
.
Never
such
a
Cole
-
Cole
plot
has
been
determined
for
ion
-
irradiated
matter
.
Only
little
is
known
about
the
details
of
the
clustering
process
of
non
-
soluble
high
-
dose
implants
,
e
.
g
.
of
metals
in
a
polymer
.
Also
the
subsequent
radiation
-
induced
cluster
redistribution
has
hardly
been
observed
.
Radiobiological
questions
become
only
now
of
interest
,
such
as
the
adsorption
and
desorption
of
biological
species
on
ion
-
irradiated
surfaces
.
Also
there
is
a
lack
of
good
information
on
the
sterilizing
properties
of
ion
-
irradiated
surfaces
.
Radiochemical
mechanisms
after
ion
impact
have
been
worked
out
only
for
the
most
common
synthetic
polymers
.
Nearly
nothing
is
known
,
however
,
about
corresponding
reactions
in
e
.
g
.
elastomers
,
biodegradable
synthetic
polymers
,
"
living
"
polymers
,
and
organometals
.
Ion
-
induced
polymerization
and
depolymerization
processes
in
both
solids
and
liquids
have
hardly
been
treated
.
The
very
promising
development
of
ion
-
track
-
based
sensors
has
only
now
just
begun
.
There
is
a
great
demand
for
household
,
cars
,
ecology
,
chemical
industry
,
medicine
,
and
ABC
antiterror
protection
.
The
same
holds
for
actuators
,
to
create
self
-
regulating
intelligent
systems
in
the
above
-
mentioned
fields
.
As
a
conclusion
,
one
might
say
that
the
field
of
ion
-
solid
interaction
,
a
former
spin
-
off
from
nuclear
science
,
is
now
a
well
established
science
with
good
fundaments
and
useful
applications
emerging
.
However
,
due
to
the
relatively
short
life
time
of
that
science
,
many
details
are
still
unknown
.
Therefore
,
ion
-
solid
interaction
is
still
now
regarded
as
a
challenging
scientific
field
that
offers
still
lots
of
promising
applications
,
and
it
justifies
especially
the
invitation
to
interested
scientists
from
other
fields
to
contribute
to
this
discipline
with
their
great
specific
expertise
.
Acknowledgments
We
are
especially
indebted
to
our
friends
J
.
P
.
Biersack
,
A
.
Berdinsky
,
M
.
Behar
,
V
.
Hnatowicz
,
J
.
Vacik
,
M
.
Müller
,
and
K
.
K
.
Dviwedi
,
for
their
expertise
and
continuous
help
and
assictance
in
our
work
in
the
field
of
ion
/
solid
interaction
.
We
also
want
to
extend
our
thanks
to
our
dear
colleagues
R
.
M
.
Papaleo
,
W
.
R
.
Fahrner
,
K
.
Hoppe
,
and
A
.
Chandra
who
contributed
to
many
of
the
results
reported
here
.
Warm
thanks
also
to
our
former
PhD
students
and
PostDocs
T
.
Kie
,
L
.
Wang
,
R
.
Klett
,
P
.
Goppelt
-
Langer
,
A
.
Petrov
,
P
.
Fichtner
,
P
.
Grande
,
R
.
Kaschny
,
P
.
Alegaonkar
and
D
.
Sinha
,
and
to
many
other
helpful
colleagues
,
unfortunately
remaining
unnamed
here
for
the
lack
of
space
.
This
work
was
enabled
by
the
kind
assistance
of
M
.
Tabacniks
and
J
.
Chubaci
,
and
by
funds
of
the
Sociedade
Brasileira
de
Física
,
Sao
Paulo
,
Brazil
for
D
.
F
.
REFERENCES
[
1
]
U
.
Littmark
,
J
.
F
.
Ziegler
,
"
Handbook
of
Range
Distributions
for
Energetic
Ions
in
All
Elements
"
,
Vol
.
6
,
Pergamon
Press
,
New
York
(
1980
)
,
and
:
J
.
F
.
Ziegler
,
"
Handbook
of
Stopping
Cross
Sections
for
Energetic
Ions
in
All
Elements
"
,
Pergamon
Press
,
1980
,
and
:
J
.
F
.
Ziegler
,
J
.
P
.
Biersack
,
U
.
Littmark
,
Proceedings
of
the
USJapan
Seminar
on
Charged
Particle
Penetration
Phenomena
,
ORNL
report
CONF820131
(
1982
)
,
p
.
88
[
2
]
J
.
P
.
Biersack
,
L
.
G
.
Haggmark
,
The
Transport
and
Ranges
in
Matter
.
Nucl
Instr
Meth
174
,
257
(
1980
)
.
[
4
]
L
.
T
.
Chadderton
and
D
.
Fink
,
Fullerene
Genesis
by
Ion
Beams
III
.
On
the
Absence
of
Latent
Tracks
in
GeV
Ion
Irradiated
Graphite
.
Rad
Effects
Def
.
Solids
152
,
87
(
2000
)
.
[
4
]
for
more
details
,
the
reader
is
referred
to
modern
textbooks
,
e
.
g
.
to
:
Transport
Processes
in
Ion
Irradiated
Polymers
and
Applications
,
Vols
.
1
and
2
,
D
.
Fink
(
ed
.
)
,
Springer
-
Verlag
(
2004
)
[
5
]
D
.
Fink
,
P
.
S
.
Alegaonkar
,
A
.
V
.
Petrov
,
A
.
S
.
Berdinsky
,
A
.
V
.
Rao
,
M
.
Müller
,
K
.
K
.
Dwivedi
,
L
.
T
.
Chadderton
,
The
Emergence
of
New
Ion
Track
Applications
,
Radiat
.
Meas
.
36
,
605
(
2003
)
.
[
6
]
D
.
Fink
,
R
.
Klett
,
Latent
Tracks
in
polymers
for
future
use
in
nanoelectronics
,
an
overview
about
the
present
state
-
of
-
the
-
art
.
Braz
.
J
.
Phys
.
25
,
54
(
1995
)
.
[
7
]
A
.
S
.
Wendt
,
O
.
Vidal
,
and
L
.
T
.
Chadderton
,
Earth
and
Planet
Sci
Lett
.
,
201
,
593
(
2002
)
.
[
8
]
R
.
L
.
Fleischer
,
P
.
B
.
Price
,
R
.
M
.
Walker
,
Nuclear
Tracks
in
Solids
:
Principles
and
applications
.
University
of
California
,
Berkeley
,
1975
[
9
]
S
.
M
.
Sze
,
Physics
of
Semiconductor
Devices
.
J
.
Wiley
Sons
,
New
York
,
2
nd
ed
.
(
1981
)
[
10
]
J
.
F
.
Ziegler
,
J
.
Manoyan
,
The
stopping
of
ions
in
compounds
.
Nucl
.
Instr
.
Meth
B35
,
215
-
228
(
1988
)
[
11
]
Such
a
study
is
in
progress
now
(
J
.
P
.
Biersack
,
pers
.
Communication
2004
)
Received
on
3
November
,
2004
©
2006
Sociedade
Brasileira
de
Física
Caixa
Postal
66328
05315
-
970
São
Paulo
SP
-
Brazil
Tel
.
:
+
55
11
3091
-
6922
Fax
:
(
55
11
)
3816
-
2063
On
October
1
,
1999
,
Albertina
Ximenes
placed
her
son
,
Damião
Ximenes
Lopes
,
in
the
care
of
the
Casa
de
Repouso
Guarapes
,
the
only
psychiatric
clinic
in
the
Sobral
region
.
Three
days
later
on
October
4
,
Albertina
returned
to
the
clinic
to
visit
Damião
,
who
was
suffering
from
a
psychiatric
disorder
,
but
was
informed
that
he
"
was
not
in
a
state
to
receive
visits
.
"
Dissatisfied
,
Albertina
entered
the
clinic
shouting
Damião
'
s
name
.
Damião
came
to
meet
her
,
but
was
in
a
deplorable
state
,
bleeding
,
with
various
wounds
,
hematomas
and
his
hands
tied
.
She
asked
a
staff
person
at
the
clinic
to
take
him
for
a
bath
,
and
afterwards
sought
the
doctor
in
charge
,
Dr
.
Francisco
Ivo
de
Vasconcelos
,
Clinical
Director
of
the
Casa
de
Repouso
Guararapes
,
and
forensic
medical
examiner
in
Sobral
.
The
doctor
merely
prescribed
some
medicines
,
without
examining
Damião
.
When
Albertina
returned
to
look
for
her
son
again
,
a
cleaner
at
the
clinic
told
her
that
a
fight
had
taken
place
between
Damião
and
the
nurses
,
and
as
a
result
of
this
Damião
ended
up
badly
hurt
.
Albertina
found
him
beside
a
bed
,
completely
naked
with
his
hands
tied
.
Unable
to
take
Damião
away
,
Albertina
returned
home
.
By
the
time
she
had
returned
home
,
the
Casa
de
Repouso
Guararapes
had
already
rung
informing
her
of
the
death
of
her
son
.
The
medical
report
,
signed
by
Dr
.
Francisco
Ivo
de
Vasconcelos
and
released
on
the
same
day
,
certified
Damião
'
s
cause
of
death
as
"
cardio
-
respiratory
arrest
.
"
Due
to
the
circumstances
surrounding
his
death
,
and
the
fact
that
the
forensic
medical
examiner
in
Sobral
also
held
the
position
of
director
at
the
clinic
where
Damião
had
died
,
Damião
'
s
relatives
took
his
body
for
a
post
-
mortem
examination
(
necropsy
)
in
the
State
capital
,
Fortaleza
.
The
Forensics
department
in
Fortaleza
certified
that
Damião
'
s
cause
of
death
was
'
unknown
,
'
despite
evidence
that
he
suffered
violent
attacks
.
From
this
moment
forward
,
Damião
'
s
sister
,
Irene
Ximenes
Miranda
,
began
her
search
for
justice
,
denouncing
the
events
to
all
the
responsible
authorities
,
including
the
Civil
Police
,
the
Federal
Prosecution
service
and
the
Ceará
Legislative
Assembly
Human
Rights
Commission
.
Irene
also
denounced
the
difficulty
she
faced
providing
evidence
of
her
brother
'
s
death
following
torture
.
In
a
statement
sent
to
the
Ceará
Legislative
Assembly
Human
Rights
Commission
on
January
31
,
2000
,
Irene
noted
that
in
the
report
sent
by
the
police
station
to
the
Public
Prosecutor
,
important
statements
were
missing
that
placed
responsibility
with
the
clinic
.
1
The
police
chief
,
after
some
questioning
,
suggested
that
the
documents
could
be
at
his
home
.
Soon
afterwards
,
the
police
chief
went
home
and
returned
to
the
station
with
the
missing
documents
.
It
is
important
to
underline
that
Irene
was
told
she
would
not
have
acc
ess
to
the
clinic
audit
proceedings
,
nor
even
to
the
report
.
Irene
was
also
told
that
the
documents
would
be
handed
over
to
the
mayor
,
whose
family
owned
the
Casa
de
Repouso
Guararapes
.
Disappointed
by
the
inertia
and
inefficiency
of
the
Brazilian
authorities
responsible
,
Irene
sent
the
denunciation
to
the
Inter
-
American
Commission
on
Human
Rights
(
IACHR
)
,
an
organ
of
the
Organization
of
American
States
(
OAS
)
.
Subsequently
the
non
-
governmental
organization
Justiça
Global
teamed
up
as
co
-
petitioner
with
Irene
Ximenes
on
the
case
before
the
Inter
-
American
System
.
The
Casa
de
Repouso
Guararapes
Founded
in
1974
,
the
Casa
de
Repouso
Guararapes
was
part
of
a
network
of
private
institutions
affiliated
with
Unified
Health
System
(
Sistema
Único
de
Saúde
,
SUS
)
to
provide
care
for
people
with
psychiatric
disorders
.
It
was
the
only
institution
of
its
kind
in
the
Sobral
region
,
as
there
were
not
even
any
emergency
clinics
.
On
July
10
,
2000
,
following
the
repercussions
of
Damião
Ximenes
Lopes
'
death
,
the
intervention
of
the
clinic
was
finalized
and
its
registration
as
a
psychiatric
institution
with
the
SUS
System
was
cancelled
.
Failure
to
inspect
and
monitor
the
Casa
de
Repouso
Guararapes
by
municipal
,
state
and
federal
authorities
Despite
the
municipality
'
s
obligation
to
"
honor
contracts
and
agreements
with
groups
providing
private
health
services
,
as
well
as
controlling
and
monitoring
the
rendering
of
these
services
,
"
2
no
detailed
contract
was
ever
provided
by
the
municipality
of
Sobral
-
not
even
following
the
denunciations
relating
to
the
death
of
Damião
Ximenes
-
confirming
the
relationship
between
the
Casa
de
Repouso
Guararapes
and
the
municipality
.
Only
one
inspection
of
the
Casa
de
Repouso
Guararapes
took
place
in
the
years
preceding
Damião
'
s
death
,
in
May
1996
by
the
Grupo
de
Acompanhamento
de
Assistência
Psiquiátrica
(
GAP
)
.
The
inspection
concluded
that
the
institution
was
overcrowded
,
had
precarious
physical
and
structural
problems
,
and
presented
various
other
irregularities
in
the
running
of
the
institution
.
Although
these
observations
were
duly
reported
to
the
governmental
bodies
in
charge
of
the
inspection
and
running
of
health
facilities
,
3
the
Casa
de
Repouso
Guararapes
continued
to
function
normally
until
July
10
,
2000
.
The
Brazilian
State
'
s
responsibility
Under
the
Brazilian
Constitution
and
specific
legislation
on
the
subject
,
private
institutions
are
authorized
to
assist
with
the
fulfillment
of
the
State
'
s
duty
to
provide
medical
care
through
public
institutions
.
When
the
State
confers
authority
directly
or
indirectly
to
an
individual
or
organization
,
an
extension
of
public
authority
power
is
created
.
The
Brazilian
State
was
thus
responsible
for
the
actions
of
the
Casa
de
Repouso
Guararapes
employees
,
since
it
delegated
the
provision
of
health
care
in
the
Sobral
region
-
a
public
,
State
function
protected
by
the
constitution
-
to
the
Casa
de
Repouso
Guararapes
,
and
allowed
the
clinic
to
operate
in
the
name
of
a
public
authority
.
International
Tribunals
have
determined
that
no
State
is
exempt
from
responsibility
for
the
actions
of
private
groups
carrying
out
public
functions
.
The
Casa
de
Repouso
Guararapes
was
de
facto
an
agent
of
the
Brazilian
State
.
International
jurisprudence
and
customary
international
law
also
come
to
the
conclusion
that
the
Casa
de
Repouso
Guararapes
acted
as
an
agent
of
the
Brazilian
State
.
The
investigations
and
punishment
of
those
responsible
Damião
Ximenes
'
family
made
huge
efforts
to
cooperate
with
the
investigations
into
his
death
.
Irene
Ximenes
investigated
and
took
numerous
people
to
give
statements
at
the
police
station
,
frequently
coming
up
against
the
police
authority
'
s
inertia
and
negligence
.
On
October
28
,
1999
,
less
than
a
month
after
the
death
of
her
brother
,
Irene
discovered
that
an
investigation
into
her
brother
'
s
death
had
not
even
begun
.
Irene
filed
a
denunciation
before
the
Council
for
the
Defense
of
Human
Rights
(
Conselho
de
Defesa
dos
Direitos
Humanos
,
CDDH
)
and
the
Ceará
Council
on
Civil
Society
Participation
(
Conselho
de
Participação
da
Sociedade
do
Estado
do
Ceará
)
.
When
the
case
was
finally
opened
in
2000
,
Damião
'
s
mother
,
Albertina
Ximenes
Lopes
,
applied
for
and
became
an
assistant
to
the
Public
Prosecution
,
so
that
she
would
have
greater
control
over
the
progression
of
the
case
.
On
March
27
,
2001
,
Irene
and
Albertina
Ximenes
received
information
that
said
the
Public
Prosecutor
had
ignored
a
request
by
the
Ceará
'
s
Centro
de
Apoio
Operacional
aos
Grupos
Socialmente
Discriminados
do
Ministério
Público
to
amend
the
denunciation
,
and
include
Francisco
Ivo
de
Vasconcelos
,
Marcelo
Messias
Barros
,
Maria
Verônica
Bezerra
,
José
Eliéser
Silva
Procópio
and
Elias
Gomes
Coimbra
as
defendants
in
the
criminal
proceedings
.
Albertina
Ximenes
and
Irene
Ximenes
were
forced
to
send
communications
to
the
Public
Prosecutor
for
the
district
of
Sobral
,
requesting
the
inclusion
of
these
accused
as
laid
out
by
the
Centro
de
Apoio
Operacional
.
The
murder
of
Damião
Ximenes
,
Criminal
lawsuit
2000
.
0172
.
9186
-
1
/
0
,
is
still
being
processed
in
the
3ª
Circuit
of
the
district
of
Sobral
,
Ceará
,
since
March
28
,
2000
.
The
defendants
in
the
case
are
Sérgio
Antunes
Ferreira
(
owner
and
financial
director
of
the
Casa
de
Repouso
Guararapes
)
,
Carlos
Alberto
Rodrigues
dos
Santos
(
auxiliary
nurse
)
,
André
Tavares
do
Nascimento
(
courtyard
auxiliary
)
and
Maria
Salete
Moraes
Melo
de
Mesquita
(
nurse
)
.
They
are
accused
of
maltreatment
followed
by
death
,
according
to
Article
136
,
2º
of
the
Brazilian
Criminal
Code
.
On
September
22
,
2003
,
following
insistent
requests
by
family
members
,
the
Public
Prosecutor
requested
the
inclusion
of
Francisco
Ivo
de
Vasconcelos
(
director
of
the
Casa
de
Repouso
Guararapes
Clinic
)
and
Elias
Gomes
Coimbra
(
auxiliary
nurse
)
as
defendants
in
the
aforementioned
case
.
Yet
,
six
years
later
,
the
case
has
still
not
concluded
.
Civil
Lawsuit
200001730797
-
0
/
0
,
lodged
by
Damião
Ximenes
'
mother
Albertina
,
is
in
the
fact
-
finding
phase
of
the
procedure
.
4
Similar
to
the
criminal
procedure
,
six
years
have
passed
and
there
has
been
no
definitive
decision
regarding
the
civil
case
.
The
Ximenes
family
carries
on
without
the
due
reparations
for
the
damage
and
suffering
they
experienced
.
Progression
of
the
Case
in
the
Inter
-
American
system
Irene
Ximenes
'
denunciation
was
filed
on
22
November
1999
.
On
October
9
,
2002
,
the
Inter
-
American
Commission
on
Human
Rights
(
IACHR
)
acted
upon
the
denunciation
and
began
to
process
the
case
,
registering
it
as
number
12
.
237
.
5
During
the
119
th
Session
of
the
IACHR
in
October
2003
,
the
IACHR
concluded
that
the
Brazilian
State
was
responsible
for
violating
rights
with
respect
to
personal
integrity
,
life
,
judicial
protection
and
judicial
guarantees
,
foreseen
by
articles
5
,
4
,
8
and
25
of
the
American
Convention
on
Human
Rights
.
These
violations
resulted
from
the
cruel
,
inhumane
and
degrading
treatment
of
Damião
and
the
torture
and
subsequent
murder
within
the
Casa
de
Repouso
Guararapes
.
The
violation
of
the
obligation
to
investigate
the
crimes
,
of
the
right
to
appeal
and
judicial
guarantees
were
linked
to
the
investigation
of
the
events
and
the
Brazilian
judicial
system
.
The
IACHR
also
concluded
that
the
Brazilian
State
violated
its
generic
duty
to
respect
and
guarantee
the
rights
outlined
in
the
American
Convention
.
The
Inter
-
American
Court
of
Human
Rights
'
sentence
in
the
Damião
Ximenes
case
is
the
first
to
deal
with
the
cruel
and
discriminatory
treatment
of
people
suffering
from
psychological
disorders
.
The
acknowledgement
by
the
Court
of
the
vulnerable
situation
to
which
these
people
are
subjected
widens
international
jurisprudence
,
and
strengthens
the
denunciations
of
organizations
working
against
internment
of
psychiatric
patients
,
particularly
with
respect
to
human
rights
violations
perpetrated
within
psychiatric
institutions
.
The
Conduct
of
Brazilian
Authorities
and
the
Mental
Health
System
Until
today
,
not
one
individual
or
institution
has
been
held
responsible
for
the
murder
of
Damião
Ximenes
Lopes
.
Despite
the
Public
Prosecution
Service
having
accused
the
owner
and
three
employees
of
the
Casa
de
Repouso
Guararapes
(
of
Damião
'
s
death
)
in
March
2000
,
and
subsequently
the
director
of
the
clinic
and
one
other
employee
of
the
psychiatric
institution
,
there
has
been
no
judicial
decision
until
now
.
Since
Damião
'
s
death
,
State
agents
have
obstructed
the
search
for
justice
and
caused
unjustified
delays
to
the
case
.
The
State
demonstrated
a
clear
lack
of
will
to
extend
judicial
protection
and
secure
appropriate
legal
recourse
in
the
case
,
both
in
the
initial
treatment
of
the
death
and
the
subsequent
processing
of
those
responsible
.
During
a
public
hearing
in
San
José
,
Costa
Rica
,
the
seat
of
the
Inter
-
American
Court
of
Human
Rights
,
between
December
1
-
30
,
2005
,
the
Brazilian
State
acknowledged
its
responsibility
with
respect
to
articles
4
and
5
(
right
to
life
and
physical
integrity
)
of
the
American
Convention
on
Human
Rights
.
Following
this
,
the
State
alleged
in
its
defense
the
implementation
of
policies
for
the
reduction
of
hospital
beds
and
the
control
of
services
aimed
at
people
suffering
from
psychiatric
disorders
carried
out
by
the
national
coordination
of
the
Ministry
of
Health
'
s
mental
health
system
.
Brazil
'
s
understanding
was
that
these
few
measures
would
fulfill
the
recommendations
made
by
the
IACHR
in
its
report
on
the
case
in
2003
.
6
It
is
important
to
emphasize
that
it
was
not
the
Brazilian
mental
health
system
and
its
recent
reforms
that
were
analyzed
by
the
Inter
-
American
Court
of
Human
Rights
,
but
the
human
rights
violations
suffered
by
Damião
Ximenes
and
his
family
.
Despite
a
certain
amount
of
change
and
development
in
the
treatment
of
people
with
mental
disorders
,
no
adequate
or
efficient
instruments
were
set
up
to
combat
,
investigate
and
monitor
human
rights
violations
suffered
by
psychiatric
patients
.
As
a
way
of
preventing
cases
similar
to
that
of
Damião
Ximenes
,
it
is
imperative
that
the
Brazilian
State
proceeds
with
the
closure
of
the
psychiatric
units
failed
by
the
National
Program
for
the
Evaluation
of
Psychiatric
Hospitals
(
PNASH
)
.
The
evaluation
of
these
psychiatric
hospitals
and
centers
as
insufficient
by
PNASH
confirms
that
these
very
institutions
are
potential
violators
of
human
rights
,
since
they
do
not
provide
conditions
for
appropriate
treatment
for
people
with
mental
health
disorders
.
The
implementation
of
efficient
mechanisms
to
receive
and
investigate
denunciations
of
violence
and
maltreatment
of
people
with
mental
health
disorders
is
essential
.
This
highlights
the
importance
of
participation
of
civil
society
representatives
,
the
Office
of
the
Public
Prosecutor
and
groups
representing
professionals
in
the
area
of
mental
health
,
in
the
creation
of
a
communication
channel
between
patients
and
their
families
within
the
mental
health
system
,
and
in
the
prevention
of
behaviors
that
lead
to
the
violation
of
human
rights
.
Other
cases
of
violence
against
people
suffering
from
psychiatric
disorders
The
Dr
.
Milton
Marinho
psychiatric
hospital
,
located
in
the
municipality
of
Caicó
,
in
the
state
of
Rio
Grande
do
Norte
,
was
the
scene
of
two
murders
of
psychiatric
patients
,
in
2000
(
José
Martins
da
Silva
)
and
2002
(
Sandro
Fragoso
)
.
These
two
cases
remain
unresolved
.
The
hospital
remains
open
and
those
responsible
for
the
deaths
have
not
been
brought
to
trial
,
despite
an
auditor
from
the
Ministry
of
Health
having
concluded
that
with
reference
"
to
the
denunciations
attributed
to
the
Dr
.
Milton
Marinho
psychiatric
hospital
of
the
deaths
of
José
Martins
da
Silva
and
Sandro
Fragoso
,
that
we
consider
that
the
events
that
took
place
are
directly
related
to
the
precarious
nature
of
the
care
given
to
the
patients
.
"
7
The
murder
of
Wanderley
Sobrinho
Alves
de
Oliviera
in
Juiz
de
Fora
,
Minas
Gerais
,
is
another
emblematic
case
of
impunity
.
Oliveira
,
who
was
53
years
of
age
and
suffered
from
schizophrenia
,
was
hospitalized
at
the
Dr
.
Penido
clinic
,
and
died
on
September
22
,
2000
.
Oliveira
'
s
cause
of
death
was
attributed
to
serious
hydroelectric
shock
,
resulting
from
nearly
100
percent
of
his
body
being
burnt
.
More
than
five
years
have
passed
since
the
murder
of
Wanderley
de
Oliveira
,
and
the
criminal
case
has
still
not
been
filled
.
In
other
words
,
a
criminal
process
has
not
been
opened
.
8
In
the
municipality
of
Rio
Grande
,
in
the
state
of
Rio
Grande
do
Sul
,
on
July
5
,
2006
,
a
serious
example
of
the
violation
of
human
rights
in
a
psychiatric
clinic
took
place
,
as
three
young
girls
were
burnt
to
death
in
a
fire
that
took
place
in
a
room
in
the
female
ward
of
the
local
psychiatric
hospital
.
According
to
criteria
for
the
classification
of
psychiatric
hospitals
,
which
include
the
quality
of
care
provided
,
number
of
beds
,
physical
structure
,
dynamics
,
level
of
involvement
in
the
mental
health
network
and
adherence
to
the
technical
norms
prescribed
by
the
SUS
,
the
National
Program
for
the
Evaluation
of
Psychiatric
Hospitals
(
PNASH
)
9
recommended
the
removal
of
official
accreditation
for
the
following
institutions
:
10
In
its
2002
annual
report
:
1
)
Casa
de
Saúde
Santa
Catarina
-
Montes
Claros
,
Minas
Gerais
-
124
beds
;
2
)
Instituto
de
Reabilitação
Funcional
-
Campina
Grande
,
Paraíba
-
145
beds
;
3
)
Fundação
Hospitalar
do
Seridó
(
Hospital
Psiquiátrico
Dr
.
Milton
Marinho
)
-
Caicó
,
Rio
Grande
do
Norte
-
72
beds
;
4
)
Casa
de
Saúde
Dr
.
Eiras
-
Paracambi
,
Rio
de
Janeiro
-
980
beds
;
e
5
)
Hospital
Estadual
Teixeira
Brandão
-
Rio
de
Janeiro
-
102
beds
;
In
its
2003
and
2004
reports
:
1
)
Sanatório
São
Paulo
-
Salvador
,
Bahia
-
175
beds
;
2
)
Sanatório
Nossa
Senhora
de
Fátima
-
Juazeiro
,
Bahia
-
80
beds
;
3
)
Hospital
José
Alberto
Maia
-
Camaragibe
,
Pernambuco
-
980
beds
;
4
)
Hospital
Santa
Cecília
-
Nova
Iguaçu
,
Rio
de
Janeiro
-
200
beds
;
5
)
Hospital
Colônia
Lopes
Rodrigues
-
Feira
de
Santana
,
Bahia
-
500
beds
.
According
to
information
from
the
Central
Coordination
for
Mental
Health
,
Ministry
of
Health
,
of
these
10
hospitals
,
only
three
have
been
closed
.
11
Seven
remain
open
.
12
The
Inter
-
American
System
of
Human
Rights
For
further
information
on
the
Inter
-
American
Court
of
Human
Rights
,
visit
http
:
//
www
.
corteidh
.
or
.
cr
/
general_ing
/
index
.
html
For
information
about
the
Inter
-
American
Commission
on
Human
Rights
,
visit
http
:
//
www
.
iachr
.
org
/
what
.
htm
Footnotes
:
1
Law
8080
,
article
18
,
X
;
19
September
1990
.
2
Idem
3
Civil
lawsuit
200001730797
-
0
/
0
.
Information
available
at
http
:
//
www2
.
tj
.
ce
.
gov
.
br
/
sproc
/
paginas
/
sprocprincipal
.
htm
.
4
Inter
-
American
Commission
on
Human
Rights
,
Admissibility
Report
,
Case
12
.
237
,
Damião
Ximenes
Lopes
vs
.
Brazil
.
5
Relatório
de
Mérito
n
.
º
43
/
03
da
Comissão
Interamericana
de
Direitos
Humanos
,
página
43
.
6
Information
contained
in
the
SUS
Audit
Report
,
carried
out
by
the
National
Audit
Department
(
Audit
689
,
published
on
2
December
2003
)
.
7
The
police
inquiry
started
on
25
October2000
.
After
three
years
of
police
inquiries
,
the
police
chief
responsible
for
the
investigation
presented
a
report
(
on
19
May
2004
)
and
concluded
for
the
indictment
of
six
doctors
and
nine
nurses
of
the
Hospital
Dr
.
João
Penido
,
for
the
crimes
of
mal
-
treatment
followed
by
death
.
Since
this
date
the
investigation
became
the
responsibility
of
the
Office
of
the
Public
Prosecutor
in
Minas
Gerais
to
present
a
criminal
denunciation
before
the
local
judge
and
,
then
start
the
criminal
case
.
8
PNASH
was
created
by
Law
10
.
216
/
2001
,
to
foster
the
improvement
of
hospital
services
and
the
des
-
internment
of
patients
with
mental
disorders
.
It
established
a
ranking
of
the
public
health
service
network
,
based
on
quality
indicators
defined
by
the
Program
itself
and
by
the
number
of
hospital
beds
available
.
9
This
list
is
available
at
http
:
//
portal
.
saude
.
gov
.
br
/
portal
/
arquivos
/
pdf
/
GM251
-
diretrizes
%
20e
%
20normas
%
20para
%
20assist
.
hosp
.
psiquiatria
.
pdf
.
10
Official
communication
nº
.
541
/
2005
-
MS
/
SAS
/
DAPE
/
CSM
,
sent
by
the
Coordination
of
Mental
Health
,
Ministry
of
Health
,
to
the
petitioners
on
6
th
January
2006
.
11
Official
communication
nº
1333
-
05
/
CG
-
CFP
,
dated
18
November
2005
,
sent
by
the
Vice
-
President
of
the
Federal
Council
of
Pyschology
(
Conselho
Federal
de
Psicologia
)
to
the
petitoners
.
Information
:
Justiça
Global
:
In
Brazil
:
(
+
55
)
21
2544
2320
/
8272
1916
/
8232
1771
-
Sandra
Carvalho
,
executive
director
;
Carlos
E
.
Gaio
,
international
relations
director
In
the
USA
:
(
+
1
)
617
669
8606
-
James
Cavallaro
,
Justiça
Global
'
s
vice
-
president
and
clinical
director
of
Harvard
Law
School
'
s
Human
Rights
Program
In
the
UK
:
(
+
44
)
7908
061849
-
Andressa
Caldas
,
adjunct
director
Damião
Ximenes
Lopes
'
family
:
In
Sobral
,
Ceará
:
(
+
55
)
88
3685
1281
/
9924
8142
-
Irene
Ximenes
(
Damião
'
s
sister
)
In
Fortaleza
:
(
+
85
)
8814
8112
-
Dra
.
Lídia
Costa
,
expert
in
the
case
Sandra
R
.
Haas
1
;
Fábio
R
.
Nascimento
1
;
Ivo
André
H
.
Schneider
1
*
;
Christine
Gaylarde
2
1
FEAR
,
Universidade
de
Passo
Fundo
,
Passo
Fundo
,
RS
,
Brasil
.
2
MIRCEN
,
Departamento
de
Solos
,
Universidade
Federal
do
Rio
Grande
do
Sul
,
Porto
Alegre
,
RS
,
Brasil
Submitted
:
November
11
,
1998
;
Approved
:
May
21
,
1999
.
ABSTRACT
The
treatment
of
fine
particles
dispersed
in
liquids
is
common
in
several
industries
and
especially
important
in
mineral
processing
.
The
efficiency
of
settling
operations
can
be
substantially
increased
by
flocculation
.
The
aim
of
this
work
was
to
study
the
flocculation
of
fine
fluorite
particles
by
the
bacterium
Corynebacterium
xerosis
.
Flocculation
tests
,
microelectrophoresis
measurements
and
optical
microscopy
were
used
to
evaluate
flocculation
.
The
results
showed
that
C
.
xerosis
cells
adhere
to
the
fluorite
surfaces
promoting
the
aggregation
of
the
particles
.
High
quality
flocs
can
be
obtained
rapidly
at
pH
7
.
0
using
a
cell
concentration
of
40
mg
/
l
,
considerably
lower
than
previously
reported
in
the
literature
.
The
results
are
discussed
with
reference
to
the
surface
characteristics
of
the
mineral
and
of
the
microorganism
.
Key
words
:
adhesion
,
Corynebacterium
xerosis
,
flocculation
,
fluorite
.
INTRODUCTION
At
various
stages
during
the
processing
of
minerals
it
is
necessary
to
separate
the
aqueous
suspensions
into
their
component
solid
and
liquid
phases
.
Typical
examples
of
this
are
thickening
of
flotation
concentrates
,
recovery
of
pregnant
leach
liquors
,
and
dewatering
of
tailings
.
In
many
cases
,
the
mineral
particles
settle
out
of
suspension
very
slowly
,
so
that
the
liquid
-
solid
separation
is
slow
and
incomplete
.
The
efficiency
of
such
gravity
settling
operations
can
be
substantially
increased
by
aggregation
of
the
mineral
particles
.
Methods
currently
used
for
aggregation
and
settling
of
finely
divided
solids
in
slurries
include
pH
adjustment
,
increasing
ionic
strength
,
introduction
of
inorganic
coagulants
such
as
aluminum
and
ferric
salts
,
and
introduction
of
organic
flocculants
such
as
starch
and
long
chain
synthetic
flocculants
(
10
,
15
,
16
)
.
These
methods
,
in
addition
to
increasing
costs
,
can
also
lead
to
the
release
of
polluting
waste
materials
.
Finely
divided
mineral
particles
can
also
be
flocculated
by
microorganisms
.
An
isolate
of
Arthrobacter
has
been
shown
to
promote
the
settling
of
fines
in
manganese
ore
washings
(
5
)
.
The
bacterium
Mycobacterium
phlei
(
7
,
14
)
and
the
yeast
Candida
parapsilosis
(
12
,
13
)
improved
settling
rates
in
mineral
suspensions
,
but
flocculation
was
not
as
good
as
that
obtained
with
commercial
long
chain
flocculants
.
Most
microorganisms
adhere
to
solid
surfaces
if
the
charge
and
hydrophobic
interactions
between
the
cells
and
the
solid
surface
are
favorable
,
but
do
not
always
promote
flocculation
of
mineral
particles
.
The
mechanism
of
this
flocculation
appears
primarily
to
be
cell
adhesion
and
bridging
between
the
particles
.
Van
Loosdrecht
et
al
.
(
17
,
18
)
showed
that
cells
of
M
.
phlei
and
Corynebacterium
xerosis
were
highly
hydrophobic
and
negatively
charged
.
Since
previous
work
has
shown
that
the
former
microorganism
does
not
effectively
promote
flocculation
of
fluorite
(
8
)
,
we
investigated
the
potential
of
the
latter
,
C
.
xerosis
,
to
flocculate
fine
fluorite
particles
.
The
effect
of
settling
time
,
cell
concentration
,
and
pH
of
the
suspension
on
solids
settling
was
studied
.
The
results
are
discussed
in
terms
of
the
surface
properties
of
the
mineral
and
of
the
microorganism
.
MATERIALS
AND
METHODS
Fluorite
Fluorite
crystals
(
99
%
CaF
2
)
were
obtained
from
a
mining
company
(
Criciúma
-
Santa
Catarina
,
Brazil
)
.
The
crystals
were
ground
in
a
laboratory
mill
.
The
particle
size
distribution
of
the
sample
used
for
flocculation
tests
was
determined
by
laser
difraction
in
a
Malvern
Particle
Size
Analyzer
Model
3601
(
Table
1
)
.
Microorganisms
The
bacterium
Corynebacterium
xerosis
,
from
Caroline
Biological
Supply
Company
-
USA
,
was
grown
for
72
hours
in
nutrient
broth
.
Cultures
were
produced
in
300
ml
flasks
,
continuously
shaken
at
37
o
C
.
Cells
were
harvested
by
centrifugation
,
washed
twice
in
distilled
water
and
finally
suspended
in
water
to
give
a
2
g
/
l
suspension
.
This
stock
cell
solution
was
kept
at
5
o
C
and
used
in
flocculation
studies
within
48
hours
,
either
neat
,
or
at
various
dilutions
.
Flocculation
tests
Flocculation
studies
were
carried
out
using
a
standard
"
Jar
Test
"
apparatus
.
Settling
tests
were
performed
by
preparing
1000
ml
suspensions
containing
10
g
/
l
of
fluorite
.
The
pH
of
the
medium
was
adjusted
as
required
and
the
microorganisms
added
to
the
mineral
suspension
.
The
suspensions
were
mixed
by
stirring
for
1
min
at
250
rpm
to
promote
a
uniform
distribution
of
the
cells
.
The
stirrer
speed
was
reduced
to
50
rpm
for
2
min
,
to
create
low
shear
conditions
and
allow
floc
formation
.
Particles
were
then
allowed
to
settle
under
gravity
and
samples
were
withdrawn
at
set
time
intervals
from
10
cm
below
the
water
surface
.
The
flocculation
efficiency
was
evaluated
by
the
following
parameters
:
-
naked
eye
and
microscope
observation
of
floc
quality
;
-
residual
turbidity
in
nephelometric
units
of
turbidity
(
NTU
)
;
-
solids
removal
from
water
.
The
solids
concentration
was
determined
gravimetrically
.
The
solids
removal
percentage
(
or
flocculation
efficiency
)
was
calculated
using
the
relationship
.
where
:
Ci
=
initial
concentration
of
solids
Cf
=
concentration
of
solids
after
time
t
Zeta
potential
measurements
The
electrokinetic
properties
were
studied
as
a
function
of
pH
using
a
Rank
Brothers
Ltd
microelectrophoresis
apparatus
.
C
.
xerosis
cells
and
fluorite
particles
were
suspended
in
water
containing
1x10
-
3
M
NaNO
3
and
the
pH
was
adjusted
by
addition
of
NaOH
and
HNO
3
.
For
each
pH
value
20
readings
were
taken
and
averaged
.
The
zeta
potential
was
calculated
from
electrophoretic
mobility
using
the
Smoluchowsky
equation
(
9
)
.
RESULTS
Fig
.
1
shows
photomicrographs
demonstrating
the
flocculation
of
fluorite
by
C
.
xerosis
.
Fig
.
1a
shows
dispersed
fluorite
particles
in
the
absence
of
the
microorganisms
.
In
the
presence
of
C
.
xerosis
cells
,
particles
are
agglomerated
(
Fig
.
1b
)
.
These
fluorite
/
cell
aggregates
settle
very
rapidly
in
water
allowing
an
almost
complete
solids
removal
and
a
high
clarification
of
the
water
.
Figure
1
.
Photomicrographs
of
fluorite
particles
suspended
in
water
(
a
)
and
aggregated
in
the
presence
of
Corynebacterium
xerosis
(
b
)
.
Magnification
100x
.
The
effect
of
settling
time
on
flocculation
efficiency
in
the
presence
of
40
mg
/
l
C
.
xerosis
cells
at
pH
7
.
0
is
shown
in
Fig
.
2
.
The
result
is
compared
to
a
plot
obtained
in
the
absence
of
flocculant
.
In
the
presence
of
bacteria
,
near
maximum
flocculation
is
obtained
within
30
s
after
the
beginning
of
settling
.
The
same
test
procedure
was
used
to
evaluate
the
effect
of
settling
time
on
residual
turbidity
,
which
was
decreased
from
130
NTU
to
20
NTU
in
approximately
5
min
in
the
presence
of
C
.
xerosis
(
Fig
.
3
)
.
Figure
2
.
Solids
removal
efficiency
of
fluorite
suspensions
as
a
function
of
settling
time
in
the
presence
or
absence
of
40
mg
/
l
of
Corynebacterium
xerosis
(
pH
7
.
0
+
/
-
0
.
2
)
.
Figure
3
.
Residual
turbidity
of
fluorite
suspension
as
a
function
of
settling
time
in
the
presence
or
absence
of
40
mg
/
l
of
Corynebacterium
xerosis
(
pH
7
.
0
+
/
-
0
.
2
)
.
Fig
.
4
shows
the
flocculation
results
as
a
function
of
cell
concentration
.
Good
flocculation
is
obtained
at
a
microorganism
dosage
of
20
mg
/
l
and
maximum
flocculation
at
40
mg
/
l
.
About
96
%
of
the
solids
present
in
the
suspension
were
removed
in
a
settling
time
of
1
min
.
Higher
concentrations
than
40
mg
/
l
did
not
produce
any
improvement
in
floc
quality
.
Figure
4
.
Solids
removal
efficiency
of
fluorite
suspensions
as
a
function
of
Corynebacterium
xerosis
cells
(
pH
7
.
0
+
/
-
0
.
2
,
1
min
settling
time
)
.
Fig
.
5
represents
flocculation
efficiency
as
a
function
of
pH
.
Also
shown
are
data
for
fluorite
flocculation
in
the
absence
of
microorganisms
.
At
the
bacterial
cell
concentration
used
,
the
suspensions
were
readily
flocculated
at
pH
values
of
4
.
0
-
9
.
0
,
with
an
optimum
pH
of
around
7
.
0
.
Figure
5
.
Solids
removal
efficiency
of
fluorite
suspensions
as
a
function
of
pH
in
the
presence
or
absence
of
40
mg
/
l
of
Corynebacterium
xerosis
cells
(
1
min
settling
time
)
.
Fig
.
6
displays
the
zeta
potential
of
C
.
xerosis
cells
and
of
fluorite
particles
as
a
function
of
pH
.
The
C
.
xerosis
cells
had
an
isoelectric
point
at
pH
2
.
0
while
the
isoelectric
point
of
fluorite
was
near
pH
10
.
0
.
Negatively
charged
organisms
should
ready
adhere
to
the
positively
charged
fluorite
at
neutral
pH
values
.
At
pH
7
.
0
,
which
gave
best
flocculation
results
,
the
C
.
xerosis
cells
have
a
zeta
potential
of
-
30
mV
and
fluorite
particles
of
about
+
60
mV
.
Figure
6
.
Zeta
potential
of
Corynebacterium
xerosis
cells
and
fluorite
particles
as
a
function
of
pH
.
Ionic
strength
mantained
by
addition
of
1x10
-
3
M
NaO
3
-
DISCUSSION
The
experimental
data
indicate
that
C
.
xerosis
cells
adhere
to
fluorite
particles
and
promote
flocculation
of
fine
fluorite
suspensions
over
a
range
of
pH
values
.
The
quality
of
the
flocs
obtained
are
comparable
to
those
produced
with
long
chain
polymers
.
The
flocs
are
very
"
tight
"
and
dense
and
contain
little
water
.
The
flocculation
occurs
rapidly
,
within
1min
.
,
showing
that
these
bacteria
are
more
efficient
than
the
Arthrobacter
species
used
by
Deshpande
(
5
)
for
clearing
manganese
mining
wastewaters
,
which
required
a
minimum
of
30
min
settling
time
.
The
mechanism
of
flocculation
has
been
discussed
elsewhere
and
primarily
occurs
by
cell
bridging
(
7
,
14
)
.
This
mechanism
is
specially
efficient
in
systems
where
the
microorganism
is
smaller
or
of
a
similar
size
to
the
particles
(
6
)
.
In
the
present
case
,
the
median
size
of
the
particles
was
12
.
5
µm
and
only
2
%
of
the
fluorite
has
a
particle
size
smaller
than
1
µm
(
approximate
size
of
C
.
xerosis
cells
)
.
In
many
cases
,
the
adherence
of
a
microorganism
to
a
mineral
surface
can
be
predicted
by
a
calculation
based
on
the
Derjaguin
-
Landau
-
Verwey
-
Overbeek
(
DLVO
)
theory
(
6
,
18
,
19
)
.
According
to
this
theory
,
the
total
long
range
interaction
(
>
1nm
)
between
surfaces
is
a
summation
of
van
der
Waals
and
coulombic
interactions
(
1
,
4
)
.
This
theory
explains
the
optimum
flocculation
behavior
at
neutral
pH
values
in
the
fluorite
-
C
.
xerosis
system
.
At
pH
7
.
0
the
fluorite
has
a
high
positive
charge
(
about
+
60
mV
)
and
the
bacteria
a
high
negative
charge
(
about
-
30
mV
)
.
However
,
a
specific
adsorption
interaction
should
not
be
neglected
.
Bacteria
having
similar
electrokinetic
behavior
were
not
able
to
promote
the
same
degree
of
flocculation
of
fluorite
(
8
)
.
It
has
been
shown
that
some
Gram
-
negative
bacteria
have
specific
adsorption
mechanisms
to
solid
surfaces
,
associated
with
the
surface
lipopolysaccharides
(
3
)
,
and
it
is
possible
that
a
similar
type
of
interaction
may
occur
with
this
Gram
-
positive
organism
.
Gram
negative
bacteria
tested
by
us
had
no
effect
on
settling
(
results
not
shown
)
.
However
,
the
members
of
the
Acintomycetaceae
have
previously
been
shown
to
promote
flocculation
of
fine
particles
(
5
)
and
one
possibility
is
that
this
is
due
to
the
distinctive
nature
of
their
cell
wall
material
(
11
)
.
In
addition
,
the
Corynebacterium
group
can
produce
short
chains
of
cells
because
of
incomplete
separation
after
cell
division
(
2
)
and
this
leads
to
a
pseudo
-
polymeric
structure
,
promoting
cell
bridging
.
The
concentration
of
C
.
xerosis
required
to
flocculate
fine
fluorite
suspensions
is
lower
than
that
of
other
microorganisms
reported
in
the
literature
.
For
instance
,
flocculation
of
hematite
suspensions
with
the
yeast
Candida
parapsilosis
requires
about
50
kg
/
t
of
bioflocculant
(
12
)
,
while
flocculation
of
fluorite
with
C
.
xerosis
is
possible
with
only
4
kg
/
t
.
However
,
the
dosage
required
is
still
higher
than
that
used
in
flocculation
with
long
synthetic
polymers
.
A
long
chain
polyacrylamide
(
average
molecular
weight
1x10
6
)
flocculates
some
suspensions
at
concentrations
below
0
.
1
kg
/
t
.
Microorganisms
are
potential
low
cost
flocculants
for
solid
-
liquid
operations
in
mineral
processing
.
Further
studies
are
necessary
to
increase
their
competitiveness
with
common
flocculants
used
in
the
mining
industry
.
These
will
include
research
to
identify
more
bacterial
strains
able
to
adhere
to
mineral
surfaces
,
investigate
the
mechanisms
involved
,
develop
procedures
to
isolate
the
biochemical
fraction
responsible
for
flocculation
,
and
to
optimize
the
production
of
the
bioflocculants
on
large
scale
.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The
authors
wish
to
acknowledge
the
financial
support
provided
by
following
Brazilian
institutions
:
FAPERGS
(
process
96
/
1789
.
5
)
,
CNPq
(
process
521968
/
96
-
8
)
.
RESUMO
Floculação
de
partículas
finas
de
fluorita
com
a
Corynebacterium
xerosis
O
tratamento
de
partículas
finas
dispersas
em
líquidos
é
comum
em
diversas
indústrias
e
especialmente
importante
no
processamento
de
minérios
.
A
eficiência
de
operações
de
sedimentação
pode
ser
substancialmente
aumentada
com
a
floculação
.
O
objetivo
deste
trabalho
foi
estudar
a
floculação
de
partículas
de
fluorita
com
a
bactéria
Corynebacterium
xerosis
.
A
metodologia
empregada
para
avaliar
a
floculação
incluiu
experimentos
de
floculação
,
microeletroforese
e
microscopia
ótica
.
Os
resultados
demonstraram
que
as
células
da
Corynebacterium
xerosis
se
aderem
na
superfície
da
fluorita
,
promovendo
a
agregação
das
partículas
.
Flocos
de
alta
qualidade
podem
ser
obtidos
rapidamente
em
pH
7
,
0
a
uma
concentração
de
microrganismos
de
40
mg
/
l
,
dosagem
esta
consideravelmente
menor
do
que
aquelas
previamente
relatadas
na
literatura
.
Os
resultados
são
discutidos
em
termos
das
propriedades
superficiais
do
mineral
e
do
microrganismo
.
Palavras
-
chave
:
adesão
,
Corynebacterium
xerosis
,
floculação
,
fluorita
.
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W
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The
scientific
basis
of
flocculation
.
Alphen
aan
den
Rijn
,
Netherlands
,
1978
,
p
.
283
-
328
.
11
.
Poindexter
,
J
.
S
.
Microbiology
-
an
introduction
to
protists
.
New
York
,
MacMillan
,
1971
.
p
.
194
.
12
.
Schneider
,
I
.
A
.
H
.
;
Misra
,
M
.
;
Smith
,
R
.
W
.
Bioflocculation
of
hematite
suspensions
with
products
from
yeast
cell
rupture
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Devel
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Chem
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Eng
.
Min
.
Process
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,
4
:
248
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252
,
1994
.
13
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Schneider
,
I
.
A
.
H
.
;
Misra
,
M
.
;
Smith
,
R
.
W
.
Bioflocculation
of
fine
mineral
suspensions
by
Candida
parapsilosis
and
its
sonication
products
.
In
:
Reagents
for
Better
Metallurgy
.
SME
,
1994
,
293
-
301
.
14
.
Smith
,
R
.
W
.
;
Misra
,
M
.
Bacterial
flocculation
of
phosphate
wastes
using
a
hydrophobic
bacterium
.
In
:
Smith
R
.
W
.
;
Misra
,
M
.
(
eds
.
)
.
Minerals
bioprocessing
,
Warrendale
,
TMS
,
1991
,
p
.
747
-
756
.
15
.
Smith
,
R
.
W
.
Liquid
and
Solid
Wastes
from
Mineral
Processing
Plants
.
Min
.
Proc
.
Extrac
.
Metall
.
Rev
.
,
16
:
1
-
22
,
1996
.
16
.
Somasundaran
,
P
.
Principles
of
flocculation
,
dispersion
,
and
selective
flocculation
.
In
:
Somasundaran
,
P
.
(
ed
.
)
.
Fine
particles
processing
.
New
York
,
AIME
,
1980
,
p
.
947
-
976
.
17
.
van
Loosdrecht
,
M
.
C
.
M
.
;
Lyklema
,
J
.
;
Norde
,
W
.
;
Schraa
G
.
;
Zehnder
,
A
.
J
.
B
.
The
role
of
bacterial
cell
wall
hydrophobicity
in
adhesion
.
Appl
.
Environ
.
Microbiol
.
,
53
:
1893
-
1897
,
1987
.
[
Medline
]
18
.
van
Loosdrecht
,
M
.
C
.
M
.
;
Lyklema
,
J
.
;
Norde
,
W
.
;
Schraa
,
G
;
Zehnder
,
A
.
J
.
B
.
Electrophoretic
mobility
and
hydrophobicity
as
a
measure
to
predict
the
initial
steps
of
bacterial
adhesion
.
Appl
.
Environ
.
Microbiol
.
,
53
:
1898
-
1901
,
1987
.
19
.
van
Loosdrech
,
M
.
C
.
M
.
;
Lyklema
,
J
.
;
Norde
,
W
.
;
Zehnder
,
A
.
J
.
B
.
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:
a
physicochemical
approach
.
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.
Ecol
.
,
17
:
1
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15
,
1989
.
*
Corresponding
author
.
Mailing
address
:
FEAR
,
Universidade
de
Passo
Fundo
,
Campus
,
Bairro
São
José
,
CEP
99001
-
970
,
Passo
Fundo
,
RS
,
Brasil
.
Fax
:
(
+
554
)
316
-
8211
.
E
-
mail
ivoandre
@
upf
.
tche
.
br
©
2006
SBM
Av
.
Prof
.
Lineu
Prestes
,
1374
Cidade
Universitária
05508
-
900
São
Paulo
SP
-
Brazil
Tel
.
/
Fax
:
(
55
11
)
813
.
9647
It
is
well
known
that
mitochondria
are
the
main
site
for
ATP
generation
within
most
tissues
.
However
,
mitochondria
also
participate
in
a
surprising
number
of
alternative
activities
,
including
intracellular
Ca
2
+
regulation
,
thermogenesis
and
the
control
of
apoptosis
.
In
addition
,
mitochondria
are
the
main
cellular
generators
of
reactive
oxygen
species
,
and
may
trigger
necrotic
cell
death
under
conditions
of
oxidative
stress
.
This
review
concentrates
on
these
alternative
mitochondrial
functions
,
and
their
role
in
cell
physiopathology
.
Key
words
:
mitochondrial
permeability
transition
,
uncoupling
proteins
,
alternative
oxidase
,
cardioprotection
,
free
radicals
,
aging
Introduction
In
order
to
continuously
generate
ATP
,
mitochondria
remove
electrons
from
reduced
substrates
and
transfer
them
to
oxygen
through
a
specialized
group
of
respiratory
complexes
.
According
to
Peter
Mitchell
'
s
findings
(
1
)
,
the
energy
generated
in
this
process
is
used
to
move
protons
from
the
mitochondrial
matrix
to
the
mitochondrial
intermembrane
space
in
a
process
known
as
proton
pumping
.
Since
the
inner
mitochondrial
membrane
is
normally
highly
impermeable
to
protons
,
respiratory
chain
-
generated
proton
pumping
produces
a
proton
potential
across
the
inner
mitochondrial
membrane
,
which
is
used
by
the
mitochondrial
ATP
synthase
to
generate
ATP
from
ADP
plus
inorganic
phosphate
.
ATP
is
thus
produced
in
a
highly
conservative
fashion
,
a
process
essential
for
cell
physiology
.
Although
ATP
synthesis
is
the
primary
role
of
mitochondria
,
it
is
not
the
only
function
of
these
organelles
.
Indeed
,
many
studies
have
shown
that
mitochondria
present
a
surprising
diversity
of
activities
within
the
cell
.
This
is
compatible
with
the
recent
finding
that
mitochondria
may
have
originated
at
essentially
the
same
time
as
the
nuclear
component
of
the
eukaryotic
cell
rather
than
in
a
separate
,
subsequent
event
(
2
)
.
This
review
focuses
on
four
of
the
main
alternative
mitochondrial
functions
and
recent
findings
about
them
.
The
mitochondrial
activities
discussed
here
include
heat
generation
,
intracellular
Ca
2
+
regulation
,
reactive
oxygen
species
generation
and
the
triggering
of
cell
death
.
Thermogenesis
Newborn
,
cold
adapted
and
hibernating
mammals
have
the
ability
to
maintain
their
body
temperature
in
a
manner
independent
of
shivering
,
but
secondary
to
an
adrenergically
stimulated
increase
in
respiration
(
3
)
.
Adrenergic
stimuli
in
these
animals
promote
a
remarkable
increase
in
blood
flow
to
brown
adipose
tissue
,
which
is
the
main
tissue
responsible
for
non
-
shivering
thermogenesis
(
4
)
.
Interestingly
,
mitochondria
within
brown
adipose
tissue
cells
behave
rather
differently
from
those
in
other
tissues
:
ATP
synthesis
is
limited
,
the
membrane
potential
is
reduced
and
respiratory
rates
are
increased
(
5
,
6
)
.
This
suggests
that
these
mitochondria
have
inner
membranes
with
a
higher
permeability
to
protons
.
In
fact
,
brown
adipose
tissue
mitochondria
contain
the
uncoupling
protein
-
1
(
UcP1
)
,
a
32
-
kDa
inner
membrane
protein
which
stimulates
proton
conductance
(
7
)
.
Ironically
,
UcP1
itself
,
when
isolated
and
incorporated
into
liposomes
,
does
not
transport
protons
.
Rather
,
it
is
an
anion
transporter
,
and
promotes
mitochondrial
uncoupling
by
transporting
fatty
acid
anions
across
the
inner
mitochondrial
membrane
in
a
manner
regulated
by
purine
nucleotides
(
8
,
9
)
.
These
fatty
acids
then
protonate
and
flip
-
flop
electroneutrally
across
the
lipid
phase
of
the
inner
mitochondrial
membrane
,
leading
to
increased
mitochondrial
proton
permeability
(
see
Scheme
1
)
.
As
a
consequence
of
this
increased
inner
mitochondrial
permeability
to
protons
,
part
of
the
energy
stored
as
membrane
potential
generated
by
the
mitochondrial
respiratory
chain
is
released
in
the
form
of
heat
,
when
protons
return
to
the
mitochondrial
matrix
.
Scheme
1
-
Energy
-
dissipating
pathways
in
mitochondria
.
The
mitochondrial
respiratory
chain
(
resp
.
chain
)
,
located
in
the
inner
mitochondrial
membrane
,
reduces
oxygen
to
water
to
generate
a
proton
gradient
,
essential
for
ATP
synthesis
.
However
,
oxygen
reduction
may
also
be
promoted
by
the
plant
mitochondrial
alternative
oxidase
(
alt
.
ox
.
)
in
a
dissipating
process
which
may
not
generate
a
proton
gradient
.
The
proton
gradient
is
decreased
by
the
activity
of
uncoupling
proteins
(
UcP
)
,
which
translocate
fatty
acid
anions
from
the
mitochondrial
matrix
to
the
cytoplasmic
surface
of
the
inner
mitochondrial
membrane
.
Fatty
acid
anions
then
combine
with
protons
,
and
flip
-
flop
electroneutrally
across
the
lipid
bilayer
.
[
View
larger
version
of
this
image
(
10
K
GIF
file
)
]
UcP1
was
discovered
in
the
1970s
,
and
was
thought
to
be
the
only
protein
of
this
kind
for
over
20
years
,
until
Vercesi
and
co
-
workers
(
10
)
described
the
existence
of
an
uncoupling
protein
in
mitochondria
isolated
from
potato
tubers
,
and
later
in
a
variety
of
other
plant
mitochondria
(
11
)
.
This
uncoupling
protein
,
known
as
plant
uncoupling
mitochondrial
protein
(
PUMP
)
functions
similarly
to
UcP1
(
12
)
,
and
is
involved
in
the
heat
generation
necessary
for
fruit
ripening
(
13
)
.
Interestingly
,
in
addition
to
PUMP
,
plant
mitochondria
may
also
contain
the
alternative
oxidase
,
a
mitochondrial
respiratory
pathway
from
ubiquinol
to
oxygen
which
does
not
promote
proton
pumping
,
and
is
,
therefore
,
dissipative
(
14
;
see
Scheme
1
)
.
The
mitochondrial
alternative
oxidase
is
involved
in
the
heat
generation
of
thermogenic
plants
such
as
the
skunk
cabbage
,
and
can
be
inhibited
by
salicylhydroxamic
acid
(
14
)
.
The
presence
of
two
dissipative
pathways
in
plants
is
curious
,
and
raises
questions
regarding
the
regulation
of
these
pathways
.
Although
the
contribution
of
each
pathway
under
different
conditions
of
plant
thermogenesis
has
not
been
well
established
,
it
now
seems
clear
that
these
pathways
do
not
operate
simultaneously
(
15
)
.
Following
the
characterization
of
PUMP
,
three
sequences
corresponding
to
mammalian
mitochondrial
proteins
homologous
to
UcP1
were
found
to
be
expressed
(
in
quantities
much
lower
than
UcP1
)
ubiquitously
(
UcP2
;
16
)
in
skeletal
muscle
(
UcP3
;
17
,
18
)
or
in
the
brain
(
UcP4
;
19
)
.
Recent
studies
have
determined
that
UcP2
and
UcP3
are
capable
of
translocating
fatty
acids
,
confirming
that
they
are
uncoupling
proteins
(
20
)
.
The
exact
relevance
of
these
newly
characterized
mammalian
uncoupling
proteins
is
still
not
completely
clear
,
but
some
interesting
studies
suggest
that
they
may
be
involved
in
the
control
of
body
weight
.
In
this
sense
,
it
has
been
shown
that
UcP3
gene
expression
is
stimulated
by
a
high
-
fat
diet
(
21
)
,
and
reduced
by
dietary
restriction
(
22
,
23
)
.
Reduced
UcP3
expression
is
also
linked
to
obesity
-
related
non
-
insulin
dependent
diabetes
(
24
)
.
The
relationship
between
UcP2
and
body
weight
is
suggested
by
the
demonstration
that
leptin
,
which
reduces
body
weight
by
decreasing
food
intake
and
increasing
thermogenesis
,
induces
UcP2
gene
expression
(
25
)
.
Regulation
of
intracellular
Ca
2
+
homeostasis
Cytosolic
Ca
2
+
levels
are
maintained
at
concentrations
approximately
10
,
000
times
lower
than
the
Ca
2
+
concentrations
in
the
extracellular
medium
(
for
review
,
see
26
,
27
)
.
This
process
is
controlled
mainly
by
plasma
membrane
and
endoplasmic
reticulum
Ca
2
+
ATPases
and
by
Ca
2
+
exchanges
in
a
process
that
requires
energy
.
Clearly
,
if
mitochondria
become
dysfunctional
and
ATP
synthesis
is
impaired
,
cellular
Ca
2
+
homeostasis
will
be
affected
.
In
addition
to
providing
the
energy
necessary
for
intracellular
Ca
2
+
regulation
,
mitochondria
themselves
participate
in
the
control
of
intracellular
Ca
2
+
concentrations
.
In
the
presence
of
a
membrane
potential
,
cations
can
be
accumulated
in
mitochondria
down
the
membrane
potential
,
as
long
as
there
is
a
transport
pathway
.
Thus
,
mitochondria
from
vertebrates
are
capable
of
actively
accumulating
Ca
2
+
ions
,
since
they
possess
a
Ca
2
+
uniporter
(
for
review
,
see
26
,
27
)
.
Ca
2
+
uptake
by
mitochondria
depends
on
the
presence
of
a
membrane
potential
which
provides
the
driving
force
for
accumulation
(
the
negative
intramitochondrial
charge
;
see
Scheme
2
)
,
and
is
inhibited
by
submicromolar
concentrations
of
ruthenium
red
,
an
inhibitor
of
the
Ca
2
+
uniporter
(
26
,
27
)
.
Ruthenium
red
also
inhibits
a
second
mechanism
for
Ca
2
+
uptake
into
mitochondria
through
the
rapid
Ca
2
+
uptake
mode
(
RaM
;
28
)
,
although
10
times
higher
concentrations
are
required
.
The
channel
which
promotes
RaM
Ca
2
+
uptake
has
not
been
characterized
,
and
may
be
the
Ca
2
+
uniporter
itself
,
operating
under
a
more
rapid
conductivity
mode
.
However
,
the
distinct
sensitivity
of
RaM
to
inhibitors
of
the
Ca
2
+
uniporter
and
mainly
the
lack
of
sensitivity
to
Mg
2
+
,
which
inhibits
Ca
2
+
uptake
via
the
Ca
2
+
uniporter
(
28
)
,
suggest
that
RaM
may
involve
an
independent
channel
.
Scheme
2
-
Mitochondrial
Ca
2
+
transport
.
Mitochondrial
Ca
2
+
influx
is
mediated
by
the
inner
membrane
uniporter
or
RaM
and
driven
by
the
proton
electrochemical
potential
.
Ca
2
+
efflux
is
promoted
by
the
Ca
2
+
/
2H
+
and
Ca
2
+
/
2Na
+
(
or
Ca
2
+
/
3Na
+
)
exchange
.
Na
+
redistribution
is
maintained
by
the
Na
+
/
H
+
antiporter
.
resp
.
chain
,
Respiratory
chain
.
[
View
larger
version
of
this
image
(
14
K
GIF
file
)
]
The
total
Ca
2
+
accumulation
capacity
of
mitochondria
can
be
quite
high
,
as
long
as
inorganic
phosphate
is
accumulated
in
parallel
,
to
compensate
for
changes
in
the
mitochondrial
pH
gradient
across
the
inner
mitochondrial
membrane
,
and
the
inner
membrane
is
not
permeabilized
by
the
mitochondrial
permeability
transition
(
MPT
)
(
see
discussion
below
)
.
Although
accumulation
capacity
is
high
,
the
affinity
for
mitochondrial
Ca
2
+
uptake
is
low
,
requiring
extramitochondrial
Ca
2
+
concentrations
of
at
least
200
-
300
nM
(
26
,
27
)
.
Because
of
this
low
affinity
of
the
mitochondrial
Ca
2
+
uptake
and
the
typical
cytosolic
free
Ca
2
+
concentrations
under
resting
conditions
(
<
100
nM
)
,
mitochondrial
Ca
2
+
uptake
was
believed
not
to
occur
inside
the
cell
under
physiological
conditions
.
This
hypothesis
has
now
been
overruled
by
observations
of
Ca
2
+
uptake
into
mitochondria
within
intact
cells
(
29
-
31
)
.
It
is
possible
that
mitochondria
take
up
Ca
2
+
during
periodic
increases
in
intracellular
Ca
2
+
concentrations
(
Ca
2
+
spikes
;
29
)
,
or
through
a
close
interaction
with
the
endoplasmic
reticulum
Ca
2
+
release
pathways
(
30
)
and
plasma
membrane
channels
(
32
)
.
Confirming
that
Ca
2
+
uptake
by
mitochondria
is
important
for
cell
function
,
mitochondria
have
developed
an
elaborate
Ca
2
+
release
system
composed
of
two
transporters
:
the
Ca
2
+
/
2H
+
exchange
,
and
the
Ca
2
+
/
2Na
+
(
or
Ca
2
+
/
3Na
+
;
33
)
exchange
.
As
shown
in
Scheme
2
,
Ca
2
+
efflux
is
energetically
uphill
,
and
thus
dissipates
the
mitochondrial
proton
gradient
.
Ca
2
+
efflux
through
these
carriers
is
500
-
1000
times
slower
than
Ca
2
+
uptake
through
the
uniporter
,
and
can
be
inhibited
by
respiratory
inhibitors
and
uncouplers
(
Ca
2
+
/
2H
+
exchange
)
or
diltiazem
,
verapamil
,
clonazepam
,
amiodarone
,
Mg
2
+
and
tetraphenylphosphonium
(
Ca
2
+
/
2Na
+
exchange
;
for
reviews
,
see
26
,
27
)
.
The
physiological
role
of
Ca
2
+
may
be
related
to
the
regulation
of
respiratory
activity
.
The
presence
of
Ca
2
+
in
the
mitochondrial
matrix
stimulates
respiration
by
affecting
three
mitochondrial
enzymes
:
pyruvate
dehydrogenase
phosphatase
,
NAD
+
-
linked
isocitrate
dehydrogenase
and
2
-
oxoglutarate
dehydrogenase
.
This
enzymatic
activation
justifies
the
enhanced
citric
acid
cycle
activity
and
respiratory
rates
observed
in
tissues
upon
adrenergic
stimulation
,
which
leads
to
elevated
intracellular
Ca
2
+
concentrations
(
34
)
.
Although
the
presence
of
approximately
1
µM
Ca
2
+
in
the
mitochondrial
matrix
has
the
beneficial
effect
of
stimulating
respiratory
activity
,
intramitochondrial
Ca
2
+
must
be
carefully
regulated
within
the
cell
,
since
excessive
mitochondrial
Ca
2
+
accumulation
may
lead
to
a
nonselective
inner
membrane
permeabilization
,
known
as
mitochondrial
permeability
transition
(
MPT
;
see
35
-
37
)
.
MPT
is
a
Ca
2
+
-
triggered
permeabilization
of
the
inner
mitochondrial
membrane
to
protons
,
ions
and
solutes
of
up
to
1500
kDa
.
In
isolated
mitochondria
,
the
Ca
2
+
quantities
necessary
for
MPT
triggering
vary
widely
with
distinct
experimental
conditions
and
from
one
tissue
to
another
.
MPT
is
thus
more
likely
to
occur
(
or
occurs
in
the
presence
of
smaller
Ca
2
+
loads
)
in
the
presence
of
MPT
inducers
such
as
inorganic
phosphate
,
pyridine
nucleotide
oxidants
and
dithiol
reagents
.
On
the
other
hand
,
ADP
,
Mg
2
+
,
antioxidants
and
cyclosporin
A
(
known
as
a
specific
MPT
inhibitor
)
prevent
MPT
.
In
vitro
,
mitochondrial
membrane
permeabilization
secondary
to
MPT
results
in
a
cyclosporin
-
A
sensitive
drop
in
mitochondrial
membrane
potential
,
and
the
release
of
Ca
2
+
accumulated
previously
,
a
process
reversible
through
Ca
2
+
chelation
within
a
few
minutes
after
its
onset
.
In
isotonic
media
,
MPT
also
results
in
colloidosmotic
swelling
of
isolated
mitochondria
due
to
the
high
protein
content
of
the
mitochondrial
matrix
.
Undoubtedly
,
MPT
occurring
under
these
conditions
results
in
irreversible
mitochondrial
dysfunction
(
see
further
discussion
under
"
Triggering
cell
death
"
)
.
However
,
the
characteristics
of
MPT
under
distinct
experimental
conditions
are
very
variable
,
and
a
more
selective
(
<
300
kDa
)
"
low
-
conductance
"
mode
of
the
permeability
transition
has
been
observed
(
for
review
,
see
38
)
.
According
to
the
model
devised
by
Ichas
and
Mazat
(
38
)
,
the
low
conductance
mode
of
MPT
does
not
involve
mitochondrial
swelling
,
is
fully
reversible
upon
matrix
acidification
secondary
to
the
mitochondrial
permeabilization
to
protons
,
and
may
be
a
mechanism
through
which
Ca
2
+
is
quickly
released
from
the
mitochondrial
matrix
.
In
the
intact
cell
,
low
-
conductance
MPT
pores
may
participate
in
the
regulation
of
cytoplasmic
Ca
2
+
signals
(
38
,
39
)
.
Reactive
oxygen
species
(
ROS
)
generation
As
a
by
-
product
of
electron
transport
,
a
small
amount
of
molecular
oxygen
(
O
2
)
undergoes
monoelectronic
reduction
at
intermediate
steps
of
the
mitochondrial
respiratory
chain
,
resulting
in
the
generation
of
the
superoxide
radical
(
O
2
-
·
)
.
This
small
but
continuous
"
electron
leak
"
makes
mitochondria
the
main
generation
site
for
reactive
oxygen
species
within
most
cells
.
Catalyzed
by
intramitochondrial
superoxide
dismutase
,
O
2
-
·
may
form
hydrogen
peroxide
(
H
2
O
2
)
,
and
subsequently
hydroxyl
radicals
(
OH
·
-
formed
through
the
Fe
2
+
-
dependent
Fenton
'
s
reaction
)
and
other
ROS
(
see
Scheme
3
and
Refs
.
37
,
40
)
.
Scheme
3
-
Mitochondrial
generation
of
ROS
.
The
respiratory
chain
(
resp
.
chain
)
produces
superoxide
radicals
(
O
2
-
·
)
,
which
generate
hydrogen
peroxide
(
H
2
O
2
)
and
hydroxyl
radicals
(
HO
·
)
.
Mitochondrial
nitric
oxide
synthase
(
NOS
)
produces
nitric
oxide
(
NO
·
)
,
which
combines
with
O
2
-
·
to
generate
peroxinitrite
(
ONOO
-
)
.
All
these
ROS
may
cause
mitochondrial
and
cellular
damage
if
present
in
excess
.
MPT
,
Mitochondrial
permeability
transition
.
[
View
larger
version
of
this
image
(
12
K
GIF
file
)
]
Normally
,
respiratory
-
chain
generated
ROS
are
detoxified
by
the
efficient
mitochondrial
antioxidant
systems
(
see
Scheme
3
and
Ref
.
40
for
review
)
,
and
do
not
cause
any
permanent
damage
to
mitochondria
.
However
,
under
nonphysiological
conditions
,
or
over
time
,
mitochondrially
generated
ROS
may
lead
to
both
mitochondrial
and
cellular
damage
.
As
an
example
,
Ca
2
+
-
triggered
MPT
,
which
is
an
early
step
in
some
conditions
leading
to
cell
death
,
is
a
result
of
mitochondrial
oxidative
stress
(
for
reviews
,
see
37
,
40
)
.
Also
,
glutamate
neurotoxicity
mediated
by
excessive
stimulation
of
N
-
methyl
-
D
-
aspartate
receptors
occurs
secondarily
to
excessive
mitochondrial
Ca
2
+
uptake
and
oxidative
stress
(
41
)
.
Finally
,
many
important
results
of
mitochondrial
oxidative
stress
may
be
observed
during
aging
,
when
damage
to
mitochondrial
DNA
accumulates
over
time
,
and
may
result
in
alterations
in
the
synthesis
of
components
of
the
respiratory
chain
(
42
)
.
Monoelectronic
reduction
of
oxygen
resulting
in
mitochondrial
ROS
generation
occurs
mainly
at
the
level
of
complexes
I
and
III
of
the
respiratory
chain
,
most
probably
by
donation
of
an
electron
from
intermediately
reduced
forms
of
ubiquinones
(
43
)
.
Since
complex
IV
is
not
an
important
site
for
O
2
-
·
generation
,
mitochondria
must
not
necessarily
respire
to
generate
ROS
.
In
fact
,
certain
respiratory
inhibitors
such
as
antimycin
A
may
increase
mitochondrial
ROS
generation
as
they
lead
to
an
accumulation
of
intermediately
reduced
ubiquinones
.
Other
conditions
that
favor
mitochondrial
ROS
generation
are
high
membrane
potentials
,
hyperoxia
,
excessive
Ca
2
+
uptake
and
anoxia
/
reoxygenation
(
for
review
,
see
40
)
.
Both
increased
cytosolic
Ca
2
+
levels
and
anoxia
/
reoxygenation
of
mitochondria
occur
under
conditions
of
ischemia
/
reperfusion
in
vivo
.
Indeed
,
reperfusion
injury
has
been
closely
associated
with
mitochondrial
oxidative
stress
and
MPT
(
44
,
45
)
.
In
addition
to
producing
O
2
-
·
through
electron
leakage
in
the
respiratory
chain
,
mitochondria
also
produce
nitric
oxide
(
NO
·
)
through
the
activity
of
a
constitutive
nitric
oxide
synthase
similar
to
the
inducible
cellular
nitric
oxide
synthase
.
NO
·
levels
regulate
mitochondrial
respiratory
activity
,
but
it
is
not
yet
known
if
this
is
the
principal
function
of
mitochondrial
NO
·
(
46
)
.
Triggering
cell
death
Not
surprisingly
,
mitochondrial
dysfunction
and
consequent
cellular
ATP
depletion
can
result
in
cell
death
.
Indeed
,
necrotic
cell
death
under
conditions
such
as
ischemia
/
reperfusion
is
strongly
inhibited
by
preventing
associated
mitochondrial
alterations
,
suggesting
that
mitochondrial
dysfunction
is
the
primary
trigger
for
cell
death
under
these
conditions
(
44
,
45
,
47
)
.
Mitochondrial
dysfunctions
which
may
potentially
lead
to
necrosis
include
MPT
,
respiratory
inhibition
,
uncoupling
between
respiration
and
oxidative
phosphorylation
,
and
excessive
ROS
generation
.
Excessive
ROS
generation
by
mitochondria
may
contribute
to
necrotic
cell
death
even
if
cellular
ATP
is
maintained
by
affecting
intracellular
Ca
2
+
homeostasis
(
41
)
.
However
,
mitochondrially
triggered
cell
death
is
not
always
necrotic
.
Recent
evidence
has
identified
these
organelles
as
regulators
of
the
highly
complex
process
of
energy
dependent
apoptotic
cell
death
(
see
Scheme
4
)
.
Two
mitochondrial
intermembrane
-
space
proteins
,
cytochrome
c
and
the
apoptosis
inducing
factor
(
AIF
)
,
have
been
shown
to
migrate
from
a
mitochondrial
to
a
cytosolic
location
shortly
before
hallmarks
of
apoptosis
are
observed
(
48
,
49
)
.
Also
,
microinjection
of
both
proteins
into
healthy
cells
results
in
the
induction
of
apoptosis
(
50
,
51
)
.
In
addition
to
cytochrome
c
and
AIF
,
mitochondria
contain
pro
-
caspase
9
,
pro
-
caspase
3
and
pro
-
caspase
2
(
52
,
53
)
which
,
when
released
into
the
cytosol
and
cleaved
,
act
as
aspartate
-
specific
proteases
that
initiate
the
apoptotic
cascade
.
Scheme
4
-
Mitochondria
can
trigger
cell
death
.
Intact
mitochondria
contain
cytochrome
c
(
circles
)
and
the
apoptosis
inducing
factor
(
AIF
,
lines
)
in
the
intermembrane
space
.
AIF
is
released
from
mitochondria
after
the
latter
undergo
nonselective
inner
membrane
permeabilization
secondary
to
MPT
,
which
results
in
mitochondrial
swelling
and
outer
membrane
disruption
.
Cytochrome
c
may
be
released
into
the
cytosol
after
MPT
,
upon
Bax
targeting
to
mitochondria
or
treatment
with
Ca
2
+
.
Once
in
the
cytosol
,
both
cytochrome
c
and
AIF
trigger
apoptosis
.
MPT
may
also
promote
necrosis
,
since
it
results
in
mitochondrial
dysfunction
.
MPT
,
Mitochondrial
permeability
transition
.
[
View
larger
version
of
this
image
(
19
K
GIF
file
)
]
Further
evidence
that
mitochondria
participate
in
apoptosis
is
provided
by
the
location
of
Bcl
-
2
family
proteins
within
the
cell
.
bcl
-
2
was
originally
identified
as
a
gene
related
to
oncogenesis
in
B
-
cell
lymphocytes
,
and
later
found
to
express
a
protein
(
Bcl
-
2
)
which
is
part
of
a
family
of
proteins
presenting
both
anti
-
and
pro
-
apoptotic
activities
.
Bcl
-
2
itself
is
predominantly
located
on
the
outer
mitochondrial
membrane
,
and
its
main
antiapoptotic
effect
seems
to
be
the
inhibition
of
mitochondrial
cytochrome
c
and
AIF
release
(
48
,
49
)
.
On
the
other
hand
,
pro
-
apoptotic
Bcl
-
2
family
proteins
such
as
Bax
and
Bid
are
primarily
cytosolic
,
and
upon
apoptotic
stimuli
assume
a
mitochondrial
location
,
an
event
which
coincides
with
the
release
of
mitochondrial
cytochrome
c
(
54
,
55
)
.
Although
the
latest
evidence
has
been
almost
unanimous
in
showing
that
mitochondria
have
an
important
role
in
the
control
of
apoptosis
,
the
exact
mechanisms
by
which
mitochondria
promote
this
regulation
are
not
yet
fully
understood
.
As
an
example
,
it
seems
clear
that
the
occurrence
of
MPT
in
vitro
promotes
the
release
of
mitochondrial
cytochrome
c
,
but
it
is
still
controversial
if
this
is
the
primary
mechanism
of
cytochrome
c
release
within
cells
.
Also
,
the
mechanism
by
which
Bcl
-
2
family
proteins
interact
with
mitochondria
and
promote
or
prevent
the
release
of
cytochrome
c
has
not
been
well
established
.
These
and
other
still
unresolved
points
of
interest
should
be
further
investigated
within
the
next
few
years
.
In
agreement
with
studies
showing
a
role
for
mitochondria
in
the
initial
steps
of
both
necrosis
and
apoptosis
,
mitochondrially
active
drugs
have
been
shown
to
be
cardioprotective
.
Of
great
interest
in
this
line
of
study
is
the
evidence
that
openers
of
the
mitochondrial
(
but
not
plasma
membrane
)
ATP
-
inhibited
K
+
channels
,
such
as
diazoxide
,
present
cardioprotective
effects
.
In
addition
,
5
-
OH
decanoate
,
a
specific
mitochondrial
K
+
channel
inhibitor
,
prevents
ischemic
preconditioning
and
the
cardioprotective
effects
of
K
+
channel
openers
(
56
)
.
These
interesting
experiments
show
that
the
increased
flux
of
K
+
into
mitochondria
through
the
ATP
-
sensitive
K
+
channel
is
cytoprotective
.
Since
the
primary
effect
of
K
+
influx
is
to
promote
a
small
increase
in
mitochondrial
volume
(
which
does
not
result
in
outer
mitochondrial
membrane
rupture
)
,
cardioprotection
promoted
by
diazoxide
may
be
the
result
of
increased
ß
oxidation
of
fatty
acids
and
respiratory
activity
secondary
to
increased
mitochondrial
volume
(
57
)
.
Inhibitors
of
the
mitochondrial
permeability
transition
are
also
cytoprotective
in
various
in
vivo
and
in
vitro
cell
death
models
(
44
,
45
,
47
)
.
It
is
believed
that
these
conditions
lead
to
intracellular
Ca
2
+
increases
,
with
excessive
mitochondrial
Ca
2
+
uptake
,
oxidative
stress
and
MPT
.
Preventing
MPT
avoids
ATP
depletion
secondary
to
mitochondrial
dysfunction
,
and
protects
from
necrotic
cell
death
under
these
conditions
.
Final
remarks
As
summarized
here
,
mitochondria
present
a
variety
of
important
functions
in
addition
to
producing
ATP
.
As
an
example
,
mitochondria
present
regulated
pathways
that
promote
energy
dissipation
,
such
as
the
mitochondrial
uncoupling
proteins
and
the
alternative
oxidase
,
which
seem
to
present
the
main
function
of
promoting
nonshivering
thermogenesis
.
Thermogenesis
is
ultimately
achieved
when
the
chemical
energy
contained
in
reduced
substrates
is
released
,
but
not
explored
for
ATP
synthesis
.
It
is
also
well
established
that
mitochondria
actively
take
up
Ca
2
+
within
intact
cells
,
and
that
this
Ca
2
+
uptake
may
both
regulate
mitochondrial
respiratory
parameters
and
influence
cytosolic
Ca
2
+
transients
.
Mitochondrial
Ca
2
+
uptake
occurs
through
the
Ca
2
+
uniporter
or
RaM
,
while
Ca
2
+
release
occurs
through
exchange
with
Na
+
and
H
+
or
,
eventually
,
the
low
-
conductance
MPT
pore
.
In
addition
,
mitochondria
constantly
produce
ROS
,
and
have
thus
developed
an
efficient
antioxidant
system
.
However
,
imbalances
in
ROS
generation
or
detoxification
systems
may
result
in
a
condition
of
oxidative
stress
.
Under
these
conditions
,
damage
to
both
mitochondrial
and
cellular
constituents
may
occur
.
Functional
mitochondrial
impairment
leading
to
cellular
ATP
depletion
is
an
initial
step
in
many
models
for
necrotic
cell
death
.
Mitochondria
may
also
trigger
ATP
-
dependent
apoptotic
cell
death
through
the
release
of
pro
-
apoptotic
proteins
from
the
mitochondrial
intermembrane
space
into
the
cytosol
.
These
findings
agree
with
the
characterization
of
the
cytoprotective
effects
of
mitochondrially
active
drugs
(
44
,
45
,
47
)
.
Thus
,
alternative
mitochondrial
activities
,
in
addition
to
ATP
synthesis
,
are
important
factors
in
cell
physiology
,
and
may
tip
the
balance
between
cell
survival
and
death
.
Further
knowledge
about
these
alternative
mitochondrial
activities
will
contribute
to
the
development
of
more
efficient
mitochondrially
targeted
drugs
capable
of
better
preventing
ischemic
injury
.
The
modulation
of
mitochondrial
activities
may
also
be
effective
in
the
treatment
of
obesity
and
diabetes
.
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Lorenzo
HK
,
Zamzami
N
,
Marzo
I
,
Brenner
C
,
Larochette
N
,
Prevost
MC
,
Alzari
PM
&
Kroemer
G
(
1999
)
.
Mitochondrial
release
of
caspase
-
2
and
-
9
during
the
apoptotic
process
.
Journal
of
Experimental
Medicine
,
189
:
381
-
394
.
[
Medline
]
53
.
Krajewski
S
,
Krajewska
M
,
Ellerby
LM
,
Welsh
K
,
Xie
Z
,
Deveraux
QL
,
Salvesen
GS
,
Bredesen
DE
,
Rosenthal
RE
,
Fiskum
G
&
Reed
JC
(
1999
)
.
Release
of
caspase
-
9
from
mitochondria
during
neuronal
apoptosis
and
cerebral
ischemia
.
Proceedings
of
the
National
Academy
of
Sciences
,
USA
,
96
:
5752
-
5757
.
[
Medline
]
54
.
Wolter
KG
,
Hsu
YT
,
Smith
CL
,
Nechushtan
A
,
Xi
XG
&
Youle
RJ
(
1997
)
.
Movement
of
Bax
from
the
cytosol
to
mitochondria
during
apoptosis
.
Journal
of
Cell
Biology
,
139
:
1281
-
1292
.
[
Medline
]
55
.
Luo
X
,
Budihardjo
I
,
Zou
H
,
Slaughter
C
&
Wang
X
(
1998
)
.
Bid
,
a
Bcl2
interacting
protein
,
mediates
cytochrome
c
release
from
mitochondria
in
response
to
activation
of
cell
surface
death
receptors
.
Cell
,
94
:
481
-
490
.
[
Medline
]
56
.
Garlid
KD
,
Paucek
P
,
Yarov
-
Yarovoy
V
,
Murray
HN
,
Darbenzio
RB
,
D
'
Alonzo
AJ
,
Lodge
NJ
,
Smith
MA
&
Grover
GJ
(
1997
)
.
Cardioprotective
effect
of
diazoxide
and
its
interaction
with
mitochondrial
ATP
-
sensitive
K
+
channels
.
Possible
mechanism
of
cardioprotection
.
Circulation
Research
,
81
:
1072
-
1082
.
[
Medline
]
57
.
Halestrap
AP
(
1989
)
.
The
regulation
of
the
matrix
volume
of
mammalian
mitochondria
in
vivo
and
in
vitro
and
its
role
in
the
control
of
mitochondrial
metabolism
.
Biochimica
et
Biophysica
Acta
,
973
:
355
-
382
.
Acknowledgments
The
author
wishes
to
thank
Dr
.
R
.
F
.
Castilho
for
a
critical
reading
of
the
manuscript
.
Correspondence
and
Footnotes
Address
for
correspondence
:
A
.
J
.
Kowaltowski
,
Caixa
Postal
6043
,
Universidade
Estadual
de
Campinas
,
13083
-
970
Campinas
,
SP
,
Brasil
.
Fax
:
+
55
-
19
-
788
-
1118
.
Present
address
:
Department
of
Biochemistry
and
Molecular
Biology
,
Oregon
Graduate
Institute
of
Science
and
Technology
,
Beaverton
,
OR
97006
-
8921
,
USA
.
E
-
mail
:
alicia
@
bmb
.
ogi
.
edu
.
Publication
supported
by
FAPESP
.
Received
October
7
,
1999
.
Accepted
November
4
,
1999
.
©
2006
Brazilian
Journal
of
Medical
and
Biological
Research
Av
.
Bandeirantes
,
3900
14049
-
900
Ribeirão
Preto
SP
Brazil
Tel
.
/
Fax
:
+
55
16
3633
-
3825
QCad
is
a
2D
CAD
system
with
which
you
can
draw
and
modify
plans
easily
.
General
Notes
A
"
plan
"
is
any
precise
plane
representation
of
a
real
object
for
study
or
for
production
purposes
.
The
dimensions
of
each
element
(
entity
)
of
which
the
drawing
consists
of
,
must
be
exact
no
matter
what
scaling
is
used
.
This
differentiates
a
CAD
program
from
a
vectorial
drawing
tool
such
as
Sketch
,
Illustrator
or
Corel
Draw
,
which
is
a
more
or
less
faithful
representation
of
reality
.
With
CAD
a
plan
first
of
all
has
to
be
exact
.
This
is
in
contrast
to
illustrations
(
Drawing
)
where
the
aesthetics
of
a
picture
are
of
more
concern
.
Installation
of
QCad
The
version
qcad
-
1
.
4
.
x
used
for
this
article
is
on
the
applications
CD
of
the
Redhat
and
Mandrake
distributions
as
ready
-
made
package
.
Other
distributions
surely
have
similar
packages
.
You
can
download
the
newest
version
at
http
:
//
www
.
qcad
.
org
/
.
Qcad
needs
QT
2
.
2
as
GUI
library
.
A
little
bit
of
theory
Before
beginning
with
your
first
document
you
should
have
understood
certain
CAD
concepts
and
definitions
.
The
entities
An
entity
is
a
layout
element
that
is
"
known
"
to
the
program
by
its
form
(
segment
,
arc
...
)
,
in
the
geometric
characteristics
of
its
position
(
vertical
,
tangent
...
)
,
in
its
start
and
end
positions
which
determine
its
dimension
(
fixed
at
intersections
,
coordinates
,
center
...
)
,
in
its
attributes
(
color
,
thickness
,
types
of
characteristics
)
and
its
membership
to
a
layer
(
blue
print
)
.
Generally
speaking
to
build
an
entity
,
it
is
necessary
:
to
define
your
view
on
the
working
layer
to
define
the
attributes
to
choose
the
nature
:
straight
line
,
segment
,
circle
,
ellipse
,
point
,
curve
,
hatch
,
text
...
to
indicate
the
geometric
framework
of
the
construction
:
horizontal
,
oblique
,
concentric
,
vertical
...
to
indicate
the
constraints
It
results
in
building
a
virtual
but
exact
sentence
of
this
kind
:
circle
of
radius
X
from
the
center
passes
through
the
endpoints
of
an
entity
which
was
indicated
by
a
right
click
,
etc
.
The
points
will
have
to
be
indicated
by
a
left
mouse
click
near
the
desired
points
which
have
to
be
chosen
among
those
that
the
system
offers
.
It
should
be
noted
that
the
concept
of
fixation
is
found
elsewhere
under
the
name
<
snap
>
For
example
the
sentence
horizontal
straight
line
,
which
touches
the
outer
lines
of
an
entity
is
composed
with
the
following
menus
and
sub
-
menus
:
Note
:
That
you
get
to
the
first
start
menu
by
clicking
with
the
right
mouse
button
onto
the
"
paper
"
.
The
layers
Elsewhere
called
levels
,
plans
,
blue
prints
.
The
layers
describe
in
fact
a
virtual
pile
of
celluloids
.
Each
celluloid
contains
a
part
of
the
drawing
,
recognizable
as
a
whole
if
you
look
on
the
pile
from
above
,
thanks
to
its
transparency
.
A
layer
can
be
moved
in
the
pile
,
removed
(
which
affects
only
the
part
of
the
drawing
that
it
contains
)
,
frozen
or
made
invisible
.
The
layer
on
which
you
work
is
the
only
active
one
at
the
moment
.
The
operations
that
you
carry
out
affect
only
it
.
When
you
assign
attributes
of
color
,
line
types
or
line
thickness
then
all
entities
that
you
draw
will
have
them
by
default
.
However
you
could
assign
blue
to
an
entity
that
is
on
a
red
layer
by
modifying
its
properties
.
For
a
complex
drawing
you
will
work
on
one
layer
after
the
other
which
allows
to
make
a
certain
subset
visible
or
invisible
,
print
only
one
piece
,
modify
nothing
but
this
.
The
status
line
The
status
line
is
located
in
the
lower
part
of
the
main
window
.
It
is
not
specific
to
CAD
software
programs
but
nevertheless
essential
.
As
a
command
requires
several
successive
operations
carried
out
in
a
defined
order
,
the
program
shows
in
the
status
line
the
operations
that
should
follow
and
what
it
expects
from
you
and
this
until
the
end
.
It
is
therefore
absolutely
necessary
to
read
the
information
that
is
displayed
in
that
lower
line
if
you
do
not
want
to
risk
that
the
CAD
session
ends
with
the
declaration
that
this
is
a
+
-
@
-
#
!!
program
.
In
CAD
the
result
is
precise
if
the
designer
is
working
exactly
and
systematically
.
Methods
of
drawing
There
are
several
ways
how
to
do
it
,
with
at
least
two
of
them
being
excellent
.
Both
use
the
concept
of
drafts
based
on
not
dimensioned
(
very
long
)
straight
lines
but
with
precise
relative
positions
(
distance
of
one
compared
to
the
other
)
.
These
straight
lines
,
horizontal
and
vertical
are
called
lines
of
construction
in
DTM
or
SoildWork
and
geometries
in
TSCadDraw
.
The
first
method
consists
of
defining
a
profile
based
on
these
straight
lines
as
points
of
support
.
The
exercise
which
we
will
follow
in
the
rest
of
this
article
will
demonstrate
this
.
The
second
method
consists
of
defining
a
profile
by
adjusting
the
lines
at
fitting
intersections
.
To
do
this
with
QCad
you
have
to
right
click
to
get
back
to
the
main
menus
and
then
choose
<
edit
>
<
Trim
two
object
>
then
click
on
the
line
that
you
would
like
to
trim
(
cut
)
next
click
on
the
line
where
your
first
line
should
stop
.
Here
are
3
examples
of
editing
objects
:
In
this
figure
as
in
the
following
ones
the
yellow
boxes
show
the
selected
functions
,
footnote
:
not
colored
by
QCad
itself
,
and
the
blue
crosses
show
corner
points
on
which
you
can
click
.
With
the
function
<
Trim
objects
>
one
makes
an
element
fit
to
another
.
It
is
important
to
click
first
(
1
)
on
the
part
that
you
want
to
fit
and
second
(
2
)
on
the
entity
that
intersects
the
first
.
For
the
function
<
Bevel
>
it
is
important
to
determine
the
X
and
Y
values
of
the
edge
before
,
no
matter
if
it
is
trimmed
or
not
and
finally
to
click
on
the
entity
to
be
beveled
.
The
steps
are
the
same
when
working
with
intersecting
lines
and
the
function
<
Round
>
.
One
should
also
mention
that
QCad
tries
to
be
quicker
than
the
user
or
tries
to
help
you
with
your
decision
,
in
fact
when
a
function
is
activated
which
needs
the
selection
of
a
second
entity
to
go
on
,
then
QCad
modifies
the
color
of
that
entity
which
is
near
the
pointer
and
indicates
to
you
that
you
can
select
it
with
a
left
mouse
click
.
It
works
the
same
way
with
the
fixation
points
which
are
colored
red
.
The
right
mouse
click
cancels
an
operation
and
allows
you
to
go
back
to
the
main
menu
.
The
following
figure
shows
the
result
of
these
various
adjustments
:
Example
application
To
get
to
know
a
program
there
is
nothing
better
than
to
use
it
.
Let
'
s
try
to
draw
an
object
which
is
inspired
by
the
logo
of
SEV
Marchal
which
I
usually
use
for
my
beginner
'
s
courses
in
numerical
control
.
With
DMT
10
by
Mécasoft
it
can
be
drawn
in
less
than
5
minutes
,
annotations
included
.
Set
up
of
a
page
format
This
is
not
strictly
necessary
for
the
exercise
but
a
technical
drawing
obeys
to
standards
which
define
among
other
things
the
view
and
the
aspect
of
the
format
(
frame
and
data
block
)
in
which
they
are
contained
.
Here
I
use
a
format
coming
from
DMT10
transferred
to
DXF
,
the
only
file
type
that
QCad
can
read
and
generate
which
in
turn
guarantees
the
exchange
in
two
directions
with
all
CAD
programs
in
the
world
.
Once
the
format
is
loaded
you
see
a
mark
off
of
the
drawing
zone
with
a
zero
reference
in
the
middle
of
the
area
.
It
is
recommended
to
delete
unnecessary
layers
,
to
rename
those
which
contain
the
format
frame
and
to
add
those
that
are
described
in
the
following
paragraphs
.
Managing
the
layers
By
clicking
on
the
icon
representing
several
piled
up
pages
you
open
a
side
window
called
"
Layer
List
"
.
The
selected
blue
print
becomes
the
active
blue
print
,
it
appears
with
intensified
brightness
.
The
eye
besides
the
name
of
the
layer
allows
to
make
it
visible
or
invisible
.
The
open
eye
to
the
very
right
of
the
layer
list
window
makes
all
layers
visible
while
the
closed
eye
makes
them
invisible
.
The
plus
sign
adds
a
layer
to
the
list
,
the
minus
sign
eliminates
the
selected
layer
,
the
symbol
REN
allows
to
rename
the
selected
layer
and
the
trash
can
deletes
all
empty
layers
.
Now
we
need
a
layer
<
Format
A4
>
that
contains
the
frame
,
a
layer
<
Trait
>
that
contains
the
drawing
in
a
front
view
and
a
layer
<
Annotation
>
that
contains
the
annotations
to
the
drawing
.
Defining
a
vertical
reference
This
straight
line
passes
through
the
origin
(
zero
)
and
allows
the
construction
of
parallels
on
the
X
-
axis
.
Our
drawing
will
be
symmetrical
to
this
line
.
At
first
you
activate
the
layer
<
Trait
>
;
then
you
choose
a
continuous
width
type
with
a
thickness
of
1
and
the
color
red
(
point
5
)
then
you
construct
the
"
sentence
"
<
straight
line
>
<
vertical
(
1
)
>
<
passing
through
absolute
coordinates
(
2
)
>
<
enter
0
,
0
(
3
)
>
<
click
left
(
4
)
>
Construct
a
parallel
to
60
If
necessary
you
remove
the
menus
by
several
right
mouse
clicks
and
construct
the
following
:
<
straight
line
>
<
Create
parallels
>
<
enter
60
>
and
approach
the
position
marks
of
the
reference
straight
line
.
It
will
become
grey
in
turn
and
according
to
the
position
of
the
pointer
QCad
suggests
to
construct
the
parallel
either
to
the
right
or
to
the
left
of
the
reference
.
Position
the
pointer
slightly
to
the
left
and
make
a
left
mouse
click
.
A
straight
line
in
cyan
is
created
.
Construct
the
other
straight
lines
Most
functions
of
QCad
are
repetitive
,
that
is
,
they
are
active
as
long
as
they
aren
'
t
replaced
by
another
.
Therefore
<
straight
line
>
<
Create
parallel
>
<
Distance
of
>
is
still
activated
.
It
is
sufficient
to
replace
the
value
60
by
50
(
Vertical
2
)
and
to
click
and
then
to
replace
50
by
25
(
Vertical
3
)
and
then
to
click
.
Go
on
with
this
for
the
horizontal
straight
lines
which
are
defined
with
regards
to
the
reference
at
0
(
Horizontal
4
)
.
Draw
the
horizontals
(
5
)
and
(
5
'
)
with
distance
60
,
then
(
6
)
with
distance
30
and
finally
(
7
)
with
distance
40
.
Construct
the
left
half
of
the
logo
For
the
construction
we
rely
here
on
the
straight
lines
which
we
have
just
drawn
.
You
have
to
go
back
to
the
main
menu
with
a
right
mouse
click
and
choose
<
lines
>
<
multiple
lines
(
button
:
create
lines
)
>
<
passing
through
the
intersection
(
Snap
automatically
to
..
)
>
.
From
this
moment
on
when
we
position
the
pointer
near
the
intersection
of
the
straight
lines
it
will
be
marked
with
a
red
circle
.
When
this
intersection
is
suitable
as
the
beginning
of
a
character
segment
,
then
make
a
left
click
,
move
to
the
next
intersection
and
make
a
left
mouse
click
again
.
The
segment
is
drawn
.
But
as
the
function
is
modal
this
last
point
which
is
the
end
of
the
segment
that
we
have
just
drawn
will
at
the
same
time
be
the
beginning
of
the
next
segment
.
This
allows
the
drawing
of
closed
contours
.
If
you
don
'
t
need
it
for
an
additional
segment
a
right
click
will
interrupt
the
active
function
but
doesn
'
t
cancel
it
.
So
for
this
half
side
of
the
profile
choose
a
continuous
line
type
,
thickness
2
and
color
blue
like
in
point
1
in
figure
QCad10
(
below
)
.
Then
left
click
on
2
,
3
,
4
,
5
,
6
,
7
,
8
,
9
and
finally
a
right
mouse
click
.
The
left
half
of
the
profile
is
ready
.
Easy
!
Editing
the
result
Editing
is
a
modification
of
something
existing
.
To
add
an
adjustment
or
a
beveling
to
a
drawn
profile
or
to
delete
a
segment
,
that
are
modifications
.
Whatever
the
changes
to
make
are
there
is
a
general
approach
.
First
you
choose
the
function
<
Edit
(
1
)
>
which
opens
a
sub
-
menu
of
all
possible
modifications
.
Select
the
desired
function
,
e
.
g
.
<
delete
objects
(
2
)
>
,
which
opens
a
sub
-
menu
for
selection
:
contour
,
all
entities
,
tag
single
element
...
This
allows
you
to
choose
the
borders
of
the
modification
.
If
you
choose
for
example
<
Tag
single
element
(
3
)
>
design
the
element
(
4
)
and
then
acknowledge
the
action
by
a
left
mouse
click
on
the
arrow
icon
(
5
)
then
the
chosen
element
is
deleted
.
Please
note
that
the
function
<
(
un
-
)
tag
single
element
;
>
is
a
toggle
,
if
you
click
on
an
element
then
it
is
selected
,
another
click
and
it
is
deselected
.
This
allows
to
remove
certain
elements
from
a
global
selection
.
Adjusting
the
basis
of
the
ear
Going
back
to
the
main
menu
we
delete
the
construction
straight
line
called
1
in
figure
QCad12
(
below
)
and
choose
<
Edit
>
<
Round
>
<
Radius
10
>
<
trimming
>
We
determine
the
entities
to
trim
,
then
we
move
the
pointer
near
to
the
adjustment
/
link
that
has
to
be
made
.
Qcad
then
suggests
possible
solutions
(
radius
10
)
.
If
a
fitting
point
is
suggested
a
left
mouse
click
keeps
the
linking
/
adjustment
and
trims
the
line
.
To
construct
the
mirrored
half
of
the
profile
With
the
existing
1
/
2
profile
it
would
be
nonsense
to
draw
another
one
,
therefore
it
is
sufficient
to
duplicate
the
first
one
symmetrically
to
obtain
a
complete
profile
.
We
choose
<
Edit
>
<
mirror
objects
>
<
Tag
Range
>
<
Point
(
Snap
to
nothing
)
>
and
draw
a
window
around
the
1
/
2
profile
(
yellow
frame
in
figure
QCad13
)
.
The
profile
is
selected
:
it
becomes
red
.
We
make
a
right
mouse
click
:
we
get
back
to
the
selected
sub
-
menu
.
We
acknowledge
by
clicking
on
the
arrow
icon
.
We
get
back
again
to
the
fixation
sub
-
menu
:
we
choose
<
Extremity
(
Snap
to
endpoints
)
>
and
determine
the
points
1
and
2
as
shown
in
figure
QCad13
.
A
dialog
box
"
Mirror
"
appears
.
If
you
type
in
a
value
of
0
,
the
1
/
2
profile
is
moved
,
if
you
give
in
a
value
of
1
it
is
duplicated
.
Therefore
you
have
to
give
in
a
value
of
1
and
click
<
Ok
>
.
And
the
profile
is
ready
.
Drawing
the
eyes
By
using
what
we
have
seen
already
we
can
draw
the
left
eye
as
well
through
the
horizontal
and
vertical
construction
lines
(
point
1
)
.
Then
you
draw
the
profile
by
building
upon
this
straight
line
with
a
polyline
.
You
trim
it
with
a
radius
5
(
green
crosses
)
and
a
radius
25
(
magenta
cross
,
points
2
and
3
)
;
finally
you
delete
the
construction
line
and
duplicate
the
left
eye
by
mirroring
it
to
the
right
(
point
4
)
.
All
necessary
commands
for
this
operation
have
already
been
explained
above
.
Adding
dimensions
Annotations
are
no
strength
of
QCad
:
it
is
impossible
to
give
tolerances
or
to
write
somewhere
else
than
in
the
middle
of
the
lines
that
indicate
the
dimensions
.
The
consequence
of
this
last
point
is
that
the
size
of
the
characters
is
changed
depending
on
the
available
space
between
two
reference
points
.
This
give
the
whole
drawing
a
strange
aspect
.
Well
,
no
matter
how
it
is
,
to
make
annotations
you
have
:
to
position
yourself
on
the
annotation
layer
,
choose
a
fitting
line
attribute
,
especially
a
thickness
of
1
and
a
color
different
from
the
other
lines
,
unique
if
possible
.
But
this
isn
'
t
obligatory
.
Select
<
Annotation
(
Sub
-
menu
dimensions
)
>
<
Type
of
annotation
horizontal
or
vertical
or
radius
...
>
<
Endpoints
to
determine
the
position
of
the
construction
lines
or
certain
intersection
(
Snap
manually
to
..
)
>
<
Point
(
Snap
to
nothing
)
for
positioning
the
dimension
>
To
change
from
one
way
of
fixation
to
another
you
may
use
the
short
cut
keys
:
F
for
<
point
>
,
E
for
<
Extremity
>
,
X
for
<
automatic
intersections
>
etc
.
The
points
A
,
B
and
C
(
image
below
)
are
difficult
to
annotate
with
a
dimension
.
A
sectional
view
(
cut
)
:
preparation
The
representation
of
a
three
dimensional
object
in
2D
makes
it
necessary
to
order
several
views
according
to
certain
drawing
norms
even
if
it
only
is
to
show
the
thickness
of
the
object
.
Our
drawing
represents
an
object
of
20mm
thickness
worked
on
in
a
depth
of
5mm
.
To
just
say
this
isn
'
t
explicitly
enough
and
a
cross
sectional
view
becomes
necessary
.
To
do
this
:
Make
the
layer
<
Annotation
>
invisible
with
a
double
click
on
the
icon
with
the
open
eye
.
Add
a
layer
<
cross
section
>
with
the
option
+
in
the
management
menu
for
the
layer
.
According
to
the
norm
a
cross
sectional
cut
is
indicated
by
a
line
with
a
points
and
hyphens
.
Activate
this
as
a
style
attribute
and
draw
a
line
of
width
1
between
the
eyes
of
our
logo
(
<
straight
line
>
<
Polyline
>
<
snap
to
grid
points
>
)
.
Sketch
the
cross
sectional
view
In
industrial
drawing
whether
with
pencil
and
paper
or
with
CAD
there
must
always
be
a
correspondence
between
the
views
.
The
cross
sectional
view
is
a
projection
along
the
line
that
indicates
the
cross
sectional
cut
through
the
object
.
Drawing
and
hatching
of
the
cross
sectional
view
We
use
again
straight
construction
lines
to
draw
the
cross
sectional
profile
with
a
polyline
(
figure
QCad18
,
below
)
.
Modify
the
properties
of
the
lines
for
the
hatch
(
2
)
.
Select
<
Create
hatchings
(
3
)
>
<
Tag
range
>
<
Passing
through
the
Point
(
Snap
to
nothing
)
>
and
draw
a
square
around
the
cross
sectional
view
to
select
the
area
(
4
)
.
Acknowledge
(
5
)
.
The
dialog
box
"
Create
hatchings
"
appears
.
We
choose
a
fitting
hatch
parameter
(
6
)
.
We
press
OK
(
7
)
and
the
hatched
view
(
8
)
is
ready
.
And
finally
the
finish
The
cross
sectional
view
as
it
is
represented
here
is
,
according
to
the
rules
of
industrial
drawing
,
is
a
projection
.
Since
obtain
this
view
by
virtually
cutting
our
profile
at
the
height
of
the
eyes
we
have
to
indicate
the
depth
of
the
eyes
.
You
add
this
as
follows
<
Straight
polyline
line
(
button
line
)
>
<
create
lines
>
Now
the
drawing
is
ready
.
Only
the
frame
of
our
paper
(
the
data
block
)
has
to
be
filled
in
with
text
.
I
leave
it
to
you
to
discover
the
<
text
function
>
.
Conclusion
Linux
CAD
-
Applications
under
the
GPL
aren
'
t
numerous
.
It
is
therefore
appropriate
to
honor
the
authors
of
QCad
and
to
thank
them
for
the
useful
application
they
give
to
the
community
.
Even
though
it
isn
'
t
replacing
industrial
applications
of
the
type
of
Cadkey
,
AutoCad
or
DMT
,
it
remains
a
good
educational
tool
and
a
tool
for
not
too
complex
plans
.
One
can
regret
the
weaknesses
of
the
annotation
function
,
the
absence
of
covering
/
lining
/
boarding
functions
(
rowness
,
geometrical
tolerances
,
sectional
views
)
and
the
numeric
limitation
of
the
geometric
border
conditions
.
But
you
can
congratulate
the
authors
for
the
ease
of
handling
,
for
the
simple
and
convenient
user
interface
,
the
powerfulness
of
linking
/
fitting
and
hatch
functions
,
to
the
choice
of
the
DXF
format
and
not
a
proprietary
format
.
Possibly
as
well
to
many
other
good
things
in
QCad
which
I
have
not
yet
discovered
.
QCad
has
a
help
system
but
the
documentation
is
English
and
remains
therefore
totally
obscure
to
me
.
This
proofs
how
easy
the
handling
of
QCad
is
.
I
have
discovered
everything
by
just
playing
around
with
the
program
.
Having
said
that
,
the
optics
of
CAD
have
changed
dramatically
in
the
recent
years
.
It
is
less
a
question
to
produce
2D
drawings
to
represent
three
-
dimensional
objects
.
But
to
work
out
a
3D
model
completely
defined
in
form
and
dimension
with
the
help
of
performant
tools
and
volume
modelers
.
The
program
generates
then
automatically
plans
,
annotations
and
the
listing
for
numerically
controlled
machines
.
These
programs
are
ProEngineer
,
SoldConcept
,
Catia
,
Solid
Edge
or
Think3D
....
When
will
these
tools
be
available
to
Linux
?
At
the
moment
we
have
QCad
and
CAM
Expert
,
its
commercial
brother
,
equipped
with
two
dimensional
CAD
and
old
MS
-
DOS
products
such
as
DMT10
by
Mécsoft
which
runs
perfectly
in
dos
-
emulation
under
Linux
as
you
can
see
in
the
last
screen
shot
(
below
)
.
Talkback
form
for
this
article
Every
article
has
its
own
talkback
page
.
On
this
page
you
can
submit
a
comment
or
look
at
comments
from
other
readers
:
G
.
C
.
Lichtenberg
dreams
of
the
earth
as
one
huge
,
living
organism
:
"
Is
it
conceivable
that
the
continental
masses
form
one
whole
system
of
cooperating
organs
?
And
should
the
different
continents
be
understood
in
analogy
with
the
internal
organs
:
kidneys
,
liver
,
bowels
?
And
what
happens
to
the
surplus
products
,
the
excrements
of
the
planet
?
"
Life
on
earth
binds
energy
,
consumes
energy
.
What
happens
to
the
surplus
,
which
explodes
the
restricted
economy
?
Few
have
thought
about
the
analogy
between
the
ecological
system
and
human
metabolism
in
such
a
drastic
way
as
Lichtenberg
.
But
the
same
idea
resurfaces
constantly
:
in
Nietzsche
'
s
"
grand
economy
,
"
in
Bataille
,
and
in
theoreticians
such
as
Fëlix
Guattari
.
The
flow
of
energy
on
earth
is
a
material
economy
-
emotions
,
thoughts
,
goods
,
money
,
desire
,
weapons
,
oil
,
art
,
information
.
Everything
circulates
,
everything
communicates
.
Fëlix
Guattari
:
"
Thus
,
it
is
impossible
to
remain
outside
of
economy
and
describe
it
as
a
closed
system
.
The
dream
of
a
systematic
description
and
control
of
the
economy
has
inspired
all
modern
ideologies
and
totalitarian
regimes
.
This
dream
is
over
.
"
"
In
truth
,
my
brothers
,
the
Spirit
is
a
stomach
"
(
Nietzsche
)
.
Metabolism
:
thinking
is
eating
.
Incorporating
and
digesting
.
In
Hegel
'
s
Enzyklopädie
[
Encyclopedia
]
we
find
a
series
of
notes
on
the
"
oral
system
"
and
the
double
function
of
the
mouth
.
The
issue
is
the
passage
from
interior
to
exterior
and
from
exterior
to
interior
-
the
incorporation
of
exterior
substance
and
the
expression
of
the
inner
.
The
mouth
has
the
"
double
function
of
simultaneously
initiating
the
transformation
of
food
to
a
moment
within
the
living
animal
organism
,
and
,
opposed
to
this
interiorization
of
the
exterior
,
the
function
of
completing
the
objectivation
of
subjectivity
taking
place
through
the
voice
"
(
paragraph
401
)
.
The
Spirit
speaks
through
the
voice
.
In
order
for
written
signs
to
be
grasped
they
have
to
become
voice
.
Hegel
understands
this
appropriation
in
analogy
with
eating
.
The
Spirit
eats
.
In
Hegel
'
s
early
text
Der
Geist
des
Christentums
[
The
Spirit
of
christianity
]
,
there
is
an
extended
,
speculative
interpretation
of
the
Holy
Communion
as
the
fundamental
act
of
Christianity
:
the
communal
eating
of
Christ
'
s
flesh
and
drinking
of
his
blood
.
The
young
Hegel
constantly
returns
to
the
doctrine
of
incarnation
.
The
sacrificial
death
of
Christ
and
the
salvation
of
the
faithful
ones
through
the
sacraments
.
The
Father
is
incarnated
in
the
figure
of
the
Son
,
who
is
sacrificed
for
the
sake
of
Man
'
s
salvation
-
the
Spirit
becomes
flesh
,
which
is
devoured
and
then
returns
to
spirituality
.
In
the
ritual
of
the
Communion
,
Hegel
sees
a
dialectical
movement
between
subjective
and
objective
:
the
Host
is
an
objectivation
of
Christ
'
s
infinite
love
for
mankind
,
but
this
"
love
,
having
become
objective
,
this
subjective
having
become
a
thing
,
returns
to
its
essence
and
becomes
subjective
again
in
the
process
of
eating
.
"
The
speculative
circle
is
closed
in
religious
incorporation
.
Subject
and
object
are
reconciled
in
the
complicated
digestive
system
of
dialectics
.
Werner
Hamacher
'
s
pioneering
Pleroma
-
zur
Genesis
und
Struktur
einer
dialektischen
Hermeutik
bei
Hegel
[
Pleroma
-
on
genesis
and
structure
of
a
hermeneutic
dialectic
by
Hegel
]
(
1978
)
,
is
dedicated
to
this
far
-
reaching
correspondence
between
eating
and
reading
,
digesting
and
understanding
.
The
figures
of
incorporation
characterize
all
of
Hegel
'
s
philosophy
.
Spirit
negates
itself
-
and
exteriorized
,
it
becomes
flesh
.
But
the
speculative
movement
rests
upon
the
principle
of
double
negation
.
Flesh
is
negated
,
devoured
and
again
dematerialized
into
Spirit
.
In
Hamacher
'
s
words
:
"
The
Spirit
reads
and
eats
itself
as
nutrition
becomes
writing
.
"
Hegel
'
s
system
is
an
auto
-
cannibalistic
encyclopedia
-
all
-
encompassing
.
In
the
concluding
chapters
of
the
Phenomenlogy
of
Spirit
,
which
deal
with
absolute
knowledge
,
the
externalization
and
successive
return
of
Spirit
through
history
is
described
as
a
laborious
digestive
process
:
the
subject
of
history
"
has
to
penetrate
and
digest
all
of
its
rich
substance
.
"
The
central
notion
of
Aufhebung
-
both
a
canceling
and
a
preserving
-
can
be
interpreted
as
a
devouring
.
An
epoch
is
devoured
by
the
next
,
where
it
is
broken
down
but
also
preserved
as
a
moment
in
a
more
encompassing
metabolism
.
The
Spirit
devours
itself
through
history
,
successively
it
incorporates
all
substance
,
until
it
finally
reaches
the
full
satiety
of
absolute
knowledge
(
Absolute
Eating
)
-
a
state
which
Hegel
,
using
a
neo
-
Platonic
term
,
calls
Pleroma
(
fullness
,
saturation
)
.
Lichtenberg
'
s
reveries
about
the
world
map
as
a
digestive
system
remain
a
mere
draft
.
But
in
Hegel
,
the
continents
are
assigned
to
their
places
in
the
violent
geopolitics
of
World
Spirit
-
a
system
of
incorporation
and
excretion
.
Geographies
:
the
Spirit
is
European
.
He
always
eats
"
in
the
same
direction
.
"
Hegel
draws
a
map
where
continents
,
ethnic
groups
,
species
of
animals
and
plants
acquire
their
ultimate
positions
in
the
dialectical
structure
.
In
a
grand
gesture
Hegel
delineates
the
basic
traits
:
"
The
World
Spirit
moves
from
east
to
west
,
since
Europe
is
the
absolute
end
of
history
,
and
Asia
its
beginning
.
"
The
sun
rises
in
the
east
-
the
Asiatic
dawn
of
Reason
is
the
birth
of
history
.
Like
the
radiant
heavenly
body
,
the
World
Spirit
moves
westwards
.
This
geographical
exposition
commences
with
a
violent
exclusion
:
Africa
.
This
continent
is
still
"
veiled
in
the
dark
color
of
the
night
,
"
and
it
is
not
part
of
the
reasonable
course
of
world
history
.
Its
inhabitants
are
said
to
be
still
caught
in
the
blind
and
irrational
forces
of
nature
,
and
consequently
they
are
"
incapable
of
any
kind
of
formation
or
development
.
We
now
leave
Africa
never
to
return
.
"
A
violent
expulsion
-
excretion
.
"
It
is
only
now
,
having
left
Africa
behind
,
that
we
find
ourselves
on
the
real
stage
of
world
history
.
Let
us
now
briefly
sketch
the
geographical
foundations
of
Asia
and
Europe
.
Asia
is
the
continent
of
commencement
.
It
is
true
that
it
is
situated
to
the
west
of
America
;
but
just
as
Europe
is
the
absolute
center
and
end
of
the
old
world
,
so
Asia
is
an
absolute
east
.
Asia
was
the
dawn
of
reason
and
the
beginning
of
world
history
.
"
The
childhood
of
history
takes
place
in
the
Oriental
cultures
.
The
light
of
reason
is
already
strong
,
Hegel
writes
,
but
it
is
still
situated
outside
of
human
subjectivity
.
The
eastward
movement
of
history
signifies
the
gradual
awakening
of
Man
.
In
European
humanism
the
process
reaches
its
peak
:
the
enlightened
self
-
consciousness
of
European
man
is
the
final
realization
of
reason
.
Metabolism
-
geography
-
politics
:
the
map
as
an
example
of
the
violence
inherent
in
classification
.
The
belief
in
the
possibility
of
mapping
the
system
from
the
outside
seems
to
amount
to
the
erection
of
totalitarian
structures
.
Fëlix
Guattari
wants
to
read
the
map
after
the
downfall
of
the
grand
systems
-
to
read
the
map
from
"
within
,
"
as
itself
part
of
the
economy
.
What
is
the
alternative
to
the
totalitarian
map
?
A
political
rhizome
.
A
flow
diagram
,
the
logic
of
transformation
:
blood
,
gold
,
filth
,
water
,
oil
,
fire
...
Alternative
geographies
:
Michel
Leiris
'
s
Africa
,
Joseph
Beuys
'
s
America
.
Eurocentric
metabolism
broken
down
:
the
geopolitical
coordinates
drawn
anew
.
The
inherent
violence
of
the
map
vs
.
a
politics
of
conflicting
maps
.
On
May
23
,
1974
,
Joseph
Beuys
arrives
at
John
F
.
Kennedy
Airport
in
New
York
.
Wrapped
in
blankets
,
he
is
carried
out
on
a
stretcher
.
An
ambulance
takes
him
to
a
Manhattan
gallery
,
where
a
coyote
awaits
him
.
He
has
still
not
touched
American
soil
.
During
four
days
and
four
nights
a
performance
takes
place
,
which
Beuys
names
Coyote
-
I
like
America
and
America
likes
me
.
What
is
at
stake
is
an
encounter
between
worlds
,
between
Europe
and
an
America
not
yet
drawn
into
the
European
sphere
.
The
sacred
animal
of
the
Indians
,
the
coyote
,
is
confronted
with
items
from
the
world
of
the
artist
:
a
walking
stick
,
two
blankets
,
a
pile
of
copies
of
The
Wall
Street
Journal
.
After
four
days
of
ritual
communication
between
man
and
animal
,
Beuys
returns
in
the
same
way
that
he
arrived
.
He
concludes
:
The
powers
of
the
coyote
are
so
great
that
they
are
incomprehensible
to
mankind
.
However
,
the
soul
of
Europe
is
not
the
Hegelian
light
,
but
a
will
to
power
and
a
ruthless
violence
.
Michel
Leiris
calls
the
European
spirit
a
"
violent
machinery
,
"
whose
heavy
armor
is
"
bloodstained
both
inwardly
and
outwardly
.
"
The
medium
of
European
"
spirit
"
is
not
reason
,
but
violence
.
In
his
On
the
genealogy
of
morals
,
Nietzsche
sketches
a
different
history
of
European
man
.
Modern
humanism
is
not
the
result
of
increasing
enlightenment
,
but
of
a
primordial
violence
,
successively
refined
,
sublimated
and
made
invisible
.
What
has
to
be
explained
is
the
existence
of
"
an
animal
endowed
with
a
soul
.
"
The
first
precondition
for
what
we
call
"
mental
life
"
and
"
subjectivity
"
is
memory
;
and
memory
,
Nietzsche
claims
,
can
only
be
produced
through
pain
:
"
Something
is
burnt
in
,
so
that
it
hurts
and
stays
in
the
memory
;
only
that
which
does
not
stop
hurting
will
stay
with
us
.
"
European
culture
rests
entirely
on
violence
and
pain
.
It
is
not
only
the
others
who
are
repressed
-
the
European
is
also
a
subtle
tormentor
of
himself
.
"
It
was
never
without
blood
,
torture
and
sacrifices
,
when
man
found
it
necessary
to
acquire
a
memory
.
"
The
animal
man
has
become
"
interiorized
,
"
he
has
created
a
painful
interior
space
,
entertained
by
subtle
doses
of
self
-
torment
(
what
is
usually
called
conscience
)
.
Instead
of
acting
out
his
aggressions
,
all
forces
are
directed
inwardly
,
and
suffering
increases
.
Indications
of
other
maps
,
different
systems
,
breaking
up
the
economy
of
European
idealism
.
The
limits
of
the
system
and
of
appropriation
.
Novalis
:
"
Could
anyone
stay
alive
by
eating
his
excrements
?
"
The
would
-
be
Hegelian
economy
at
its
extreme
.
He
dreams
of
a
total
economy
,
an
incorporation
of
all
externality
in
the
vast
metabolism
of
the
system
.
The
subject
of
history
has
to
"
penetrate
everything
and
digest
all
of
its
rich
substance
,
"
until
finally
everything
is
incorporated
in
a
totally
satiated
body
.
The
system
eats
(
or
wants
to
eat
)
it
all
:
"
Everything
has
to
become
food
"
(
Novalis
)
.
The
young
George
Bataille
reads
Nietzsche
,
and
identifies
completely
with
him
.
He
has
finally
come
across
a
thinker
with
an
eye
for
the
importance
of
lightness
and
laughter
.
The
affirmative
power
and
laughter
is
more
profound
than
all
philosophical
thought
and
all
systems
:
laughter
transcends
,
sublates
,
tears
down
-
in
its
ecstatic
whirl
,
the
system
is
shattered
.
For
Bataille
,
Nietzschean
laughter
signifies
the
transcending
movement
whereby
the
economy
of
closed
thought
is
exploded
.
Laughter
is
excess
,
sacrifice
,
waste
.
Bataille
'
s
doctrine
concerns
the
heterogeneous
,
which
cannot
be
incorporated
in
the
individual
or
social
body
,
but
has
to
be
expelled
.
This
science
Bataille
calls
heterology
;
its
object
of
study
is
the
basic
expulsory
mechanisms
at
work
in
the
constitution
of
psychological
and
social
organism
;
what
is
foreign
has
to
be
rejected
or
sacrificed
.
Hence
,
it
is
declared
filthy
or
holy
-
it
becomes
a
fetish
.
Bataille
'
s
scatology
and
his
obsession
with
sacrificial
rituals
are
rooted
in
his
will
to
liberate
himself
from
the
economy
of
dialectical
thought
,
which
he
considers
to
be
erroneously
based
on
lack
as
the
motivating
force
behind
the
system
'
s
infinite
hunger
and
its
will
to
appropriate
outer
substances
.
The
act
of
eating
within
sacrificial
rituals
can
be
interpreted
in
a
radically
anti
-
economical
way
:
not
as
a
will
to
gain
,
but
as
pure
expenditure
-
a
limitless
consumption
of
the
surplus
energy
which
resists
assimilation
.
It
is
a
matter
of
life
and
death
.
The
living
system
seeks
to
exclude
the
hieroglyphs
of
death
-
those
inanimate
signs
which
do
not
allow
for
interpretation
and
incorporation
.
The
hieroglyph
par
excellence
:
death
itself
.
Bataille
:
"
Death
is
the
highest
form
of
luxury
.
"
Luxury
-
dirt
.
The
ostentatious
destruction
of
riches
is
a
basic
cultural
mechanism
also
in
modern
societies
,
although
in
a
sublimated
form
.
There
has
to
be
a
consumption
of
surplus
energy
:
a
ritual
annihilation
,
eating
in
an
infinite
variety
of
guises
.
Bataille
finds
such
a
basic
principle
of
loss
in
the
investment
of
enormous
sums
in
jewelry
,
in
the
production
of
sacred
objects
,
and
in
the
creation
of
poetry
and
art
-
a
wasteful
expenditure
which
cannot
be
accounted
for
by
the
principle
of
gain
:
luxury
.
CNN
:
"
The
negotiations
ended
with
the
agreement
of
a
50
%
cut
-
down
on
land
-
based
nuclear
arms
.
The
supervising
of
the
dismantling
and
destruction
procedures
will
be
mutual
.
"
A
peaceful
potlatch
.
Destroyed
missiles
,
destroyed
warheads
.
What
luxury
would
surpass
the
voluntary
destruction
of
mass
destructive
weapons
?
Not
destruction
but
destruction
of
destruction
.
The
negation
of
negation
.
Result
=
0
.
The
sun
spreads
its
energy
without
demanding
anything
in
return
.
The
rays
of
this
self
-
consuming
heavenly
body
reach
the
earth
and
are
transformed
into
a
vital
force
in
plants
,
animals
,
and
human
formations
.
An
increasing
surplus
of
energy
is
accumulated
:
surfeit
.
Sooner
or
later
the
explosion
is
bound
to
come
.
With
the
advance
of
ethnographic
research
in
Amazon
and
Central
Brazil
over
the
past
thirty
years
,
two
distinct
and
apparently
irreconciliable
versions
of
gender
relations
have
emerged
.
I
refer
to
these
in
“
male
domination
”
and
“
sexual
equality
.
”
[
2
]
The
first
centers
on
the
structural
-
functionalist
distinction
between
the
public
and
private
domains
and
privileges
phenomena
such
as
dual
organization
,
political
economic
control
over
reproduction
,
and
relations
between
communities
.
Within
this
perspective
,
“
masculine
”
and
“
feminine
”
are
associated
with
the
(
encompassing
)
political
or
the
(
encompassed
)
domestic
spheres
of
these
social
formations
.
The
other
position
,
arising
from
the
cultural
-
feminist
critique
of
the
public
/
private
distinction
,
seeks
to
demonstrate
-
based
on
the
intimate
character
of
native
economies
,
the
internal
relations
of
the
local
group
and
the
mutuality
-
the
perfect
equilibrium
between
the
masculine
and
the
feminine
within
these
societies
.
In
sum
,
gender
relations
are
defined
either
as
hierarchical
(
male
domination
)
or
symmetrical
(
sexual
equality
)
,
according
to
the
point
of
view
which
corresponds
to
evidently
irreconciliable
positions
.
The
present
communication
intends
to
defend
an
analytical
path
that
permits
the
passage
from
one
conception
to
the
other
.
I
seek
to
show
that
genders
in
the
societies
of
lowland
South
America
are
defined
vis
-
à
-
vis
one
another
in
terms
of
kinship
(
consanguinity
/
affinity
)
.
In
synthesis
,
I
suggest
that
gender
and
kinship
correspond
to
a
system
of
interdependent
signs
in
the
social
philosophies
of
Amerindian
societies
.
In
other
words
,
I
propose
that
a
consideration
of
sexuality
that
is
sensitive
to
the
intuition
underlying
the
structuralist
theory
of
kinship
formulated
some
fifty
years
by
Lévi
-
Strauss
.
Let
us
recall
that
in
this
model
gender
relations
are
not
formulated
in
terms
of
an
opposition
between
“
masculine
”
and
“
feminine
”
as
absolute
and
substantive
notions
related
hierarchically
or
symmetrically
but
rather
as
a
bundle
of
complex
oppositions
of
relations
between
individuals
of
the
same
sex
and
individuals
of
the
opposite
sex
.
Precisely
in
this
sense
,
in
the
feminist
contestation
of
the
model
of
marriage
alliance
in
which
men
exchange
women
,
Lévi
-
Strauss
underlined
that
the
structure
of
alliance
that
ground
and
organize
the
sociality
,
function
in
the
same
manner
with
women
exchanging
men
.
The
consideration
of
an
exemplary
ethnographic
case
may
allow
us
to
dimly
discern
the
possibility
of
circumventing
the
debate
between
the
alternatives
of
“
male
domination
”
and
“
sexual
equality
”
in
South
American
indigenous
societies
.
We
may
observe
how
the
Enawene
Nawe
,
an
Aruak
people
of
the
Southern
Amazon
define
“
masculine
”
and
“
feminine
”
within
their
social
universe
.
The
sexual
emblems
Among
the
Enawene
Nawe
,
the
trajectory
towards
adult
life
is
socially
marked
in
both
sexes
by
emblems
of
sexuality
and
reproductive
capacity
:
the
penis
sheath
and
tatoos
on
the
belly
and
breasts
,
decorations
of
immense
value
in
the
symbolic
economy
of
the
Enawene
Nawe
are
acquired
in
the
course
of
what
we
might
call
“
rites
of
sexuality
.
”
[
3
]
During
puberty
,
boys
should
wait
for
the
growth
of
pubic
hair
in
order
to
have
access
to
a
sexual
life
.
This
physical
transformation
of
the
body
is
the
necessary
but
not
sufficient
condition
for
the
exercise
of
their
sexuality
.
In
addition
they
are
required
to
wear
a
penis
decoration
.
This
decoration
consists
in
a
strip
of
Buriti
palm
leaf
of
approximately
thirty
centimeters
of
long
by
one
centimeter
of
wide
that
is
tied
around
the
foreskin
,
with
a
knot
similar
to
that
of
a
necktie
with
the
penis
forced
back
into
the
pelvic
region
.
One
day
before
the
affixing
of
this
ornament
,
the
boy
’
s
mother
cuts
his
hair
and
substitutes
his
childhood
body
ornaments
.
Assisted
by
her
daughters
,
the
mother
prepares
a
fairly
large
amount
of
beiju
manioc
cakes
to
be
offered
to
the
brother
-
in
-
laws
of
her
child
(
the
husbands
of
his
sisters
or
brothers
of
his
future
spouse
)
who
will
officiate
at
the
ritual
.
During
the
daybreak
that
precedes
the
awarding
of
the
ornaments
,
the
officiating
brother
-
in
-
laws
stationed
within
the
clans
’
cerimonial
house
,
located
in
the
centre
of
the
village
,
begin
the
final
preparations
for
the
ceremony
:
the
fashioning
of
a
series
of
items
that
will
be
used
by
the
boy
during
the
course
of
his
initiation
,
such
as
arrows
,
palm
strips
used
to
make
the
penis
sheath
,
achiote
red
coloring
,
palm
mats
,
and
palm
strips
comprising
part
of
the
costume
of
the
yakwa
(
ritual
that
celebrates
the
clan
system
)
.
Simultaneously
within
the
boy
’
s
parent
’
s
house
,
the
boy
lying
in
his
hammock
is
painted
with
a
light
layer
of
achiote
over
his
entire
body
and
dressed
with
only
a
part
of
the
ceremonial
costume
:
the
complement
of
the
part
to
be
offered
by
his
brother
-
in
-
laws
.
At
a
given
time
,
one
of
the
initiate
’
s
brothers
-
in
-
law
(
preferably
his
sister
’
s
husband
)
will
go
and
fetch
him
at
his
house
and
lead
him
to
the
center
of
the
village
.
After
this
point
his
close
consanguines
(
parents
and
siblings
)
remain
in
their
house
to
assemble
the
gifts
which
will
be
offered
to
the
officiating
affines
immediately
after
the
bestowal
of
the
penis
ornament
.
A
straw
mat
is
placed
in
the
entranceway
of
the
clans
’
cerimonial
house
where
the
initiate
will
remain
lying
down
until
his
penis
ornament
is
bestowed
,
when
he
will
also
receive
the
remainder
of
his
ceremonial
costume
.
One
of
the
older
brother
-
in
-
laws
will
hold
the
initiate
by
his
hands
while
the
others
beat
him
lightly
.
After
a
few
minutes
,
the
brothers
-
in
-
laws
offer
bows
and
arrows
to
the
boy
as
well
as
an
extras
stock
of
Buriti
palm
thatch
used
to
make
new
ornaments
since
ornaments
deteriorate
with
time
and
need
to
be
substituted
.
Two
or
three
brothers
-
in
-
law
will
solemnly
lead
the
boy
back
to
the
his
close
consanguine
relative
’
s
residence
compartment
.
His
biological
parents
and
siblings
await
his
return
while
laying
in
their
hammocks
.
When
the
boy
is
returned
,
his
parents
pay
the
brother
-
in
-
law
with
the
gifts
they
have
prepared
beforehand
.
With
this
transaction
,
the
intitiate
comes
to
potentially
enjoy
sexual
access
to
the
sisters
of
his
“
others
.
”
In
sum
,
if
the
consanguineal
relatives
(
especially
the
mother
and
father
)
are
responsible
for
the
manufacture
of
the
physical
person
of
their
child
(
the
body
)
,
from
his
conception
until
puberty
,
his
“
others
”
,
that
is
,
his
real
or
virtual
affines
are
responsible
for
the
manufacture
of
his
social
persona
,
which
is
immediately
endowed
with
sexuality
.
Some
time
afterward
a
“
co
-
brother
-
in
-
law
”
invites
the
initiate
to
accompany
him
to
a
spot
in
the
forest
that
surrounds
the
village
-
that
is
to
say
in
the
opposite
direction
from
where
he
was
led
by
his
brother
-
in
-
laws
during
the
initiation
-
where
he
will
exchange
the
showy
ceremonial
penis
ornament
for
a
more
discrete
model
used
in
daily
life
.
In
contrast
to
the
boy
’
s
brothers
-
in
-
law
,
the
co
-
brother
-
in
-
law
receives
nothing
for
this
service
.
There
is
only
exchange
between
affines
;
one
does
not
exchange
between
consanguines
or
between
affines
of
affines
as
is
the
case
with
co
-
brother
-
in
-
laws
.
Following
this
,
the
boy
returns
to
his
hammock
in
the
company
of
his
co
-
brother
-
in
-
law
where
a
newly
initiated
girl
offers
him
two
large
gourds
of
a
drink
prepared
by
her
mother
.
The
boy
drinks
this
beverage
until
he
vomits
the
entire
remainder
of
any
food
he
has
ingested
previously
.
After
this
,
his
first
meals
should
be
made
with
brand
new
utensils
unless
a
person
apt
to
perform
blessings
blows
over
all
of
the
used
utensils
and
the
food
prepared
with
them
.
From
then
on
,
the
boy
begins
a
new
life
characterized
by
sexuality
,
by
responsibility
for
productive
activities
-
agricultural
,
fishing
and
collecting
-
and
by
his
obligatory
participation
in
ceremonial
life
.
With
females
initiation
occurs
differently
,
although
events
are
also
heavily
ritualized
.
Since
they
are
very
little
,
girls
wear
a
red
-
dyed
cotton
miniskirt
.
After
her
first
menstruation
a
girl
is
considered
ready
for
sexual
activity
,
which
may
only
begin
after
her
second
period
.
Her
tatoos
are
performed
precisely
in
this
one
month
(
or
one
moon
)
interval
.
The
visible
social
signs
(
which
are
openly
discussed
)
of
the
imminence
of
the
transition
from
child
to
adult
life
are
the
growth
of
breasts
and
the
darkening
of
the
nipples
.
These
signals
are
taken
as
indications
of
the
occurrence
of
all
the
other
relevant
bodily
transformations
in
the
same
way
that
the
growth
of
pubic
hairs
signals
these
in
a
boy
’
s
case
.
On
the
first
day
of
her
first
menstruation
,
the
girl
initiate
remains
in
her
hammock
.
Informed
of
the
event
,
her
mother
asks
her
husband
(
the
father
of
her
child
)
to
construct
a
new
partition
in
the
house
where
the
girl
may
remained
secluded
for
the
length
of
a
single
lunar
cycle
.
As
their
first
precautionary
measure
the
family
solicits
the
aid
of
a
blesser
who
is
charged
with
blowing
of
the
kitchen
fire
of
the
domestic
group
to
which
the
girl
belongs
as
well
as
her
hammock
.
Simultaneously
,
new
bottle
gourds
,
pestle
,
and
pots
are
procured
for
the
girl
’
s
use
.
On
the
following
day
,
the
girl
’
s
father
collects
a
certain
vine
with
which
her
mother
will
prepare
an
infusion
to
be
offered
to
the
girl
by
a
newly
-
initiated
boy
wearing
a
ceremonial
penis
adornment
.
The
infusion
has
strong
emetic
properties
which
results
in
the
girl
vomiting
“
all
the
old
food
”
she
has
eaten
previously
which
had
remained
in
her
body
.
Afterward
the
blesser
blows
over
the
girl
’
s
head
in
order
to
prevent
headaches
.
The
activitiy
of
the
blesser
with
the
girl
extends
to
the
dawn
of
the
third
day
at
which
point
he
[
or
she
]
leaves
the
girl
in
order
to
blow
over
the
rest
of
the
houses
in
the
village
.
When
the
menstrual
flux
subsides
,
a
tatoo
specialist
,
preferably
a
sister
of
her
mother
or
a
mother
’
s
mother
scratches
a
series
of
vertical
lines
colored
with
Genipapo
dye
on
the
belly
and
breasts
of
the
initiate
.
After
she
is
tatooed
her
hair
is
cut
and
all
of
her
childhood
ornaments
(
necklaces
,
belts
,
earrings
,
bracelets
,
etc
.
)
are
substituted
with
new
items
.
Following
this
the
blesser
blows
over
the
house
where
the
girl
resides
as
well
as
the
places
where
she
bathes
and
goes
to
the
bathroom
and
finally
over
the
clans
’
house
and
a
few
trees
on
the
outskirts
of
the
village
.
In
this
case
we
can
see
that
a
girl
’
s
initial
period
of
fertility
has
consequences
not
only
for
her
own
body
but
for
the
entire
social
universe
.
At
the
beginning
of
the
second
menstruation
,
the
girl
returns
to
her
seclusion
and
begins
again
to
observe
food
taboos
.
Once
again
the
blesser
comes
to
blow
over
her
house
and
the
other
houses
in
the
village
.
In
contrast
to
the
penis
ornament
,
the
girl
’
s
tatoos
are
not
paid
for
since
one
does
not
pay
for
the
services
of
consanguines
.
The
penis
sheath
and
tatoos
on
the
breast
and
belly
are
not
merely
symbols
of
sexuality
but
parts
of
the
newly
initiated
person
acquired
as
perpetual
aspects
of
their
being
and
imbued
with
a
profound
cosmic
meaning
.
On
the
occasion
of
their
death
,
on
the
path
to
the
eno
(
empyreal
heaven
,
located
behind
the
visible
sky
)
where
the
vital
essence
is
destined
to
reside
,
the
Enawene
Nawe
will
cross
swollen
rivers
inhabited
by
gigantic
spiders
.
These
rivers
are
crossed
by
means
of
bridges
which
are
,
in
fact
,
huge
non
-
poisonous
snakes
.
To
the
living
these
bridges
are
the
rainbows
.
Only
people
wearing
the
proper
ornaments
that
mark
sexual
difference
may
safely
cross
from
the
earthly
path
to
the
sky
.
Men
without
penis
ornaments
as
well
as
women
lacking
tatoos
are
summary
devoured
by
the
gigantic
spiders
when
they
attempt
to
cross
the
serpent
-
bridges
.
Finally
,
it
is
worth
noting
that
pushing
the
penis
shaft
partially
back
into
the
body
cavity
has
the
effect
of
considerably
increasing
the
volume
of
the
scrotum
which
is
the
locus
of
male
fertility
which
enhances
its
visibility
.
In
the
same
fashion
,
if
the
vulva
is
always
hidden
by
the
mini
-
skirt
or
by
leaves
held
in
place
by
one
or
several
belts
of
tucum
beads
during
the
bath
,
the
tatoos
visually
and
tactilely
call
attention
to
the
potential
for
conception
,
gestation
and
lactation
.
This
brief
communication
regarding
the
rites
for
the
production
of
sexuality
in
both
men
and
women
shows
that
,
in
both
cases
,
such
events
exercise
an
influence
over
much
more
than
the
individuals
submitted
to
them
.
The
fabrication
of
men
and
women
is
a
matter
that
centers
fundamentally
around
their
social
“
others
”
and
,
in
its
broadest
sense
,
involves
the
participation
of
the
entire
group
.
There
is
no
question
of
opposing
“
man
”
and
“
woman
”
rooted
in
the
“
public
”
/
“
private
”
or
in
the
“
center
”
/
“
periphery
“
domains
.
Although
girls
are
tatooed
within
the
family
compartment
while
boys
receive
their
penis
ornaments
in
the
“
clans
’
cerimonial
house
”
,
the
blesser
does
not
only
blow
over
the
girl
initiate
and
her
hammock
but
also
over
all
the
houses
of
the
village
and
even
on
the
“
clans
’
cerimonial
house
.
”
Moreover
,
we
should
not
forget
that
the
boy
receives
ritual
paraphernalia
not
only
in
the
clans
’
house
but
also
within
his
domestic
compartment
.
In
this
particular
ethnographic
case
,
the
public
/
private
opposition
seems
to
obscure
a
more
fundamental
socio
-
cosmicological
dichotomy
,
that
is
,
the
relation
between
consanguinity
and
affinity
.
The
definition
of
sexuality
proves
to
be
a
fundamental
principle
of
social
order
.
The
paths
leading
to
adult
life
for
both
males
and
females
are
,
however
,
defined
in
opposed
directions
.
Among
the
Enawene
Nawe
the
articulation
between
gender
relations
and
kinship
relations
associates
the
categories
of
masculinity
and
femininity
with
those
of
affinity
and
consanguinity
,
respectively
.
Tatoos
are
produced
by
consanguineal
relatives
,
others
-
of
-
the
-
same
-
kind
(
mother
,
mother
’
s
sister
,
grandmother
,
etc
.
)
under
the
auspices
of
mutuality
,
while
the
penis
ornament
is
bestowed
on
a
boy
by
affinal
relations
--
by
others
-
of
-
a
-
different
-
kind
(
brothers
-
in
-
law
)
according
to
a
formula
of
reciprocity
.
The
opposition
between
consanguinity
and
affinity
corresponds
to
an
ordering
principle
of
the
public
,
domestic
,
and
cosmological
spheres
,
which
always
manifests
itself
as
a
relation
between
relations
rather
than
as
a
relation
between
two
terms
:
in
sum
,
a
system
of
signs
in
the
saussurean
sense
.
The
gender
opposition
,
here
understood
as
that
derived
from
the
relation
between
individual
of
the
same
sex
and
of
the
opposed
sex
corresponds
to
an
analogously
ordered
system
.
Rituals
of
construction
of
the
opposition
and
complementarity
of
the
genders
make
clear
the
immediate
social
character
of
sexuality
.
During
male
initiation
,
the
relations
between
individuals
of
the
same
gender
and
same
kind
show
themselves
between
the
boy
initiate
and
his
father
;
between
individual
of
the
same
gender
and
different
kind
,
between
the
boy
and
his
brother
-
in
-
law
;
between
individuals
of
the
same
kind
and
different
gender
,
between
the
boy
and
his
mother
;
and
between
individuals
of
gender
and
kind
different
,
between
the
boy
and
the
newly
initiated
girl
who
offers
him
the
medicinal
beverage
which
induces
him
to
vomit
all
the
food
present
within
his
body
ingested
during
his
time
as
a
child
.
During
female
initiation
,
on
the
other
hand
,
a
similar
set
of
contrasts
are
thematized
:
between
individuals
of
the
same
gender
and
same
kind
,
between
the
girl
initiate
and
her
tatooer
;
between
individuals
of
the
same
kind
and
different
gender
,
between
the
girl
and
her
father
;
and
between
individuals
of
different
gender
and
kind
,
between
the
girl
and
the
newly
initiated
boy
who
furnishes
her
with
the
emetic
.
We
can
observe
in
this
sense
that
,
despite
their
differences
,
both
initiation
rites
reserve
identical
roles
for
relations
between
individuals
of
distinct
gender
and
kind
who
are
males
and
females
in
a
potential
marriage
relation
to
one
another
,
which
immediately
evokes
a
notion
of
symmetry
and
complementarity
between
the
sexes
.
Nevertheless
,
female
iniciation
apparently
do
not
thematize
the
opposition
between
individuals
of
same
gender
and
different
kind
,
like
husband
’
s
sister
/
brother
’
s
wife
or
husband
’
s
mother
/
son
’
s
wife
.
The
acquisition
of
the
penis
ornament
and
tatoos
on
the
breast
and
belly
marks
the
beginning
of
a
phase
of
sexual
life
which
is
especially
intense
,
in
some
cases
,
with
serval
partners
who
are
not
limited
to
the
same
age
but
also
with
those
who
are
much
older
.
These
sexual
affairs
both
before
and
during
marriage
are
characterized
by
a
different
dynamic
than
the
sexual
life
between
spouses
.
There
are
times
when
women
acquire
trade
goods
from
men
and
other
highly
coveted
items
,
such
as
belts
,
necklaces
,
bracelets
,
fish
,
etc
.
which
are
literally
“
exchanged
for
the
vagina
.
”
The
ostentatious
use
of
these
goods
as
well
as
their
quantity
corresponds
to
the
visible
signs
of
a
woman
’
s
sexual
activity
.
As
marriage
approaches
men
and
women
tend
to
concentrate
more
fully
on
sex
with
their
future
spouse
,
although
,
they
may
,
in
some
circumstances
,
seek
out
other
sexual
partners
.
The
social
cosmological
context
According
to
their
native
ideas
,
the
Enawene
Nawe
reside
on
the
intermediate
level
of
the
universe
,
between
a
level
containing
celestial
spirits
and
the
level
of
subterranean
spirits
.
The
celestial
spirits
are
beautiful
,
generous
,
playful
,
of
good
character
,
and
healthy
,
living
in
a
world
of
sexual
and
alimentary
abundance
within
a
perfect
sociological
order
.
The
Enawene
Nawe
refer
to
these
spirits
as
their
“
grandfathers
”
to
whom
an
almost
absolute
power
to
prevent
and
cure
infirmities
is
attributed
.
The
celestial
spirits
are
the
owners
of
honey
and
of
some
flying
insects
and
accompany
the
Enawene
Nawe
when
they
travel
on
fishing
or
collecting
expeditions
,
protecting
them
from
the
dangers
of
the
world
beyond
the
village
.
The
sociological
perfection
of
the
celestial
world
is
reflected
in
the
absolutely
perfect
architectural
symmetry
of
the
“
grandfathers
’
village
”
and
the
luxuriant
nature
that
surrounds
it
,
which
is
a
inexhaustable
source
of
all
sorts
of
gastronomic
pleasures
.
On
the
other
hand
,
the
spirits
of
the
subterranean
level
are
ugly
,
implacable
,
avaricious
,
insatiable
and
vectors
of
disease
and
death
.
They
are
owner
of
almost
all
of
the
resources
found
in
nature
,
such
as
fish
,
wood
,
fruits
,
and
the
principle
cultivated
products
.
While
the
celestial
spirits
share
a
reasonably
homogeneous
physical
appearance
between
themselves
,
the
subterranean
spirits
assume
extremely
variable
forms
,
all
hideously
disfigured
.
Moreover
,
they
are
extremely
lazy
.
Since
these
spirits
are
the
owners
of
existing
natural
resources
the
Enawene
Nawe
depend
on
them
for
their
food
and
consequently
for
the
reproduction
of
their
social
life
.
Thus
,
while
the
celestial
world
is
defined
fundamentally
as
a
world
of
the
“
self
-
relations
,
”
the
world
of
humans
-
as
an
imperfect
reflection
of
this
world
-
corresponds
to
the
“
relations
between
others
,
”
since
human
reproduction
is
dependent
on
the
subterranean
world
(
the
world
of
alterity
)
.
Within
the
Enawene
Nawe
cosmos
,
the
celestial
and
the
subterranean
worlds
correspond
,
respectively
,
to
the
archetypes
of
consanguinity
and
affinity
in
their
pure
state
.
The
human
world
,
on
the
other
hand
,
corresponds
to
an
arena
in
which
these
two
principles
are
combined
.
Therefore
the
social
structure
defines
its
constitutive
units
(
nuclear
family
,
extended
family
,
residential
group
,
and
clan
)
precisely
in
terms
of
the
articulation
of
these
parameters
with
the
parameters
of
gender
.
The
Enawene
Nawe
ceremonial
sphere
is
notable
for
its
complexity
.
In
general
terms
we
can
observe
that
the
native
calendar
distinguishes
two
well
-
defined
ritual
“
seasons
,
”
one
related
to
the
celestial
spirits
,
coinciding
with
the
period
of
high
waters
and
another
much
more
extensive
season
devoted
to
the
subterranean
spirits
.
The
latter
season
encompasses
the
period
of
the
rising
and
falling
waters
and
the
dry
season
.
If
both
of
these
seasons
are
essential
,
the
first
is
marked
by
much
less
formality
than
the
second
.
This
informality
can
be
so
extensive
that
,
in
stark
contrast
to
the
ceremonies
for
the
subterranean
spirits
,
celestial
spirit
ceremonies
may
be
greatly
abridged
for
purely
pragmatic
reasons
.
The
ritual
complex
dedicated
to
the
subterranean
spirits
is
basically
characterized
by
a
dynamic
in
which
the
“
hosts
,
”
all
the
women
and
the
men
of
one
or
more
clans
,
remain
in
the
village
while
the
“
others
”
,
men
from
the
other
clans
,
organize
large
fishing
expeditions
.
While
the
men
who
have
left
are
responsible
for
gathering
fish
,
those
reamaining
in
the
village
,
together
with
some
of
their
sisters
(
the
“
hostesses
”
)
,
process
a
large
quantity
of
manioc
flour
and
vegetable
salt
.
The
radical
separation
is
symbolically
constructed
between
those
who
stay
and
those
who
leave
,
the
fishermen
return
to
the
village
dressed
as
threatening
subterranean
spirits
where
they
are
received
by
the
hosts
who
are
adorned
only
with
their
human
emblems
of
gender
.
The
hosts
,
furnishers
of
manioc
and
salt
porridge
,
conceive
of
themselves
as
humans
and
metonymically
represent
the
social
whole
.
At
the
same
time
,
the
men
who
have
arrived
from
the
fishing
expedition
metaphorically
represent
the
subterranean
spirits
who
aggressively
invade
the
village
.
Little
by
little
the
group
of
hosts
domesticates
the
group
of
spirits
by
making
them
lower
themselves
to
grab
salt
with
their
hands
.
The
meeting
of
these
two
groups
is
marked
by
a
series
of
ceremonies
that
include
ritual
oratory
,
dances
,
performances
of
both
instrumental
and
choral
music
by
the
fishermen
,
representatives
of
alterity
.
The
hosts
,
that
is
those
representing
humans
,
limit
themselvs
to
remain
seated
around
the
dance
circle
where
they
keep
stoking
the
fires
that
illuminate
and
heat
the
central
patio
and
to
serve
food
and
drink
to
the
singing
and
dancing
spirits
represented
by
the
fishermen
.
The
hosts
are
defined
as
a
community
united
by
consanguinity
in
opposition
to
the
fisherfolk
who
are
related
to
one
another
as
affinal
spirits
.
In
this
regard
it
is
important
to
note
that
the
hosts
are
ideally
members
of
both
sexes
of
a
single
exogamic
clan
or
clans
who
do
not
practice
spouse
exchange
(
being
,
therefore
,
“
functional
consanguines
”
)
.
Simultaneously
,
the
fishermen
constitute
a
contingent
composed
of
individuals
of
the
same
gender
but
of
different
kinship
groups
-
that
is
,
as
affinally
related
amongst
themselves
-
representing
all
of
the
other
clans
.
The
men
who
have
remained
in
the
village
represent
the
female
role
in
opposition
to
men
who
have
arrived
from
without
(
representatives
of
the
spirits
)
since
,
during
everyday
life
,
women
offer
porridge
to
men
,
while
men
reciprocate
with
fish
for
the
women
.
Beyond
the
formal
and
rigid
aspects
of
the
ritual
,
other
notable
differences
distinguish
the
ceremonies
dedicated
to
the
celestial
and
subterranean
spirit
legions
.
In
contrast
to
what
has
just
been
described
of
the
relation
between
the
Enawene
Nawe
and
the
subterranean
spirits
,
the
rites
that
focus
on
the
celestial
spirits
are
never
accompanied
by
a
climate
of
tension
or
simulated
hostilities
.
Moreover
,
the
chants
aggregate
all
of
the
men
or
all
of
the
women
in
the
village
center
without
any
further
disposition
to
differentiate
people
in
terms
other
than
gender
.
Bodily
ornaments
and
painting
are
not
used
:
people
are
represented
as
gendered
humans
and
nothing
more
.
During
this
period
of
the
Enawene
Nawe
yearly
cycle
,
all
the
men
go
together
to
gather
honey
and
fish
while
all
the
women
apply
themselves
to
the
task
of
making
porridge
.
With
the
return
of
the
men
to
the
village
,
the
gender
complementary
and
sexual
equilibrium
is
stressed
.
On
these
occasions
,
men
exchange
honey
(
“
masculine
vaginal
mucus
”
)
produced
by
men
for
women
for
porridge
(
“
feminine
semen
”
)
produced
by
the
women
for
men
.
[
4
]
The
men
run
after
the
women
in
order
to
smear
honey
all
over
their
bodies
.
According
to
the
Enawene
Nawe
,
honey
smells
like
the
vagina
.
On
the
other
hand
,
the
analogy
between
porridge
and
sperm
is
equally
evident
if
one
focuses
on
the
color
and
consistency
of
these
two
substances
.
In
summary
,
during
the
ritual
season
that
focuses
on
the
relation
between
the
Enawene
Nawe
and
the
subterranean
spirits
(
the
“
Different
Others
”
)
,
kinship
relations
are
brought
forward
through
the
inversion
of
the
opposition
between
genders
.
On
the
other
hand
,
during
the
season
in
which
the
relationship
between
the
Enawene
Nawe
and
the
celestial
spirits
(
the
“
Identical
Others
”
)
are
foremost
,
gender
relations
are
emphasized
by
neutralizing
the
opposition
between
kinship
.
In
sum
,
gender
and
kinship
distinctions
do
not
only
cross
-
cut
the
domestic
kinship
sphere
but
correspond
properly
speaking
to
fundamental
cosmological
categories
through
which
the
social
and
cosmological
universe
is
organized
.
We
may
now
return
to
the
starting
point
of
our
consideration
of
gender
.
Based
on
Enawene
Nawe
ethnography
we
may
formulate
two
hypotheses
about
gender
relations
,
one
emphasizing
“
masculine
domination
”
could
rest
,
for
example
,
on
the
notion
of
“
control
of
the
social
order
”
,
based
on
the
universe
of
affinity
and
,
therefore
,
of
masculinity
.
The
hypothesis
of
“
sexual
equality
”
,
in
its
turn
,
could
be
anchored
in
the
production
and
dynamics
of
the
social
life
of
this
system
in
which
“
masculine
”
and
“
feminine
”
correspond
to
complementary
roles
is
strict
equilibrium
.
Enawene
Nawe
ethnographic
data
provides
support
for
both
of
these
hypotheses
as
long
as
we
realize
that
they
are
two
faces
of
the
same
coin
.
We
have
already
noted
that
rites
that
produce
sexuality
associate
feminity
and
masculinity
with
consanguinity
and
affinity
,
respectively
.
We
then
saw
how
consanguinity
and
femininity
articulate
internally
with
one
another
to
identity
and
to
gender
relations
while
affinity
and
masculinity
and
masculinity
articulate
exxternally
to
difference
and
to
kinship
relations
.
Finally
,
we
noted
that
gender
and
kinship
correspond
to
cosmological
organizing
principles
that
hold
not
only
between
living
beings
but
also
in
organization
of
the
entire
universe
.
The
Enawene
Nawe
operation
in
such
a
manner
that
gender
opposition
is
most
visible
in
the
world
of
beings
in
“
self
relations
”
when
represented
in
terms
of
the
relation
between
the
Enawene
Nawe
and
their
“
Identical
-
Others
”
(
humans
and
celestial
spirits
)
while
the
kinship
opposition
appears
to
be
most
what
is
highlighted
in
the
world
of
difference
of
the
“
relations
between
others
”
(
between
humans
and
subterranean
spirits
)
The
Javaé
of
Bananal
Island
,
a
Karajá
subgroup
studied
by
Patrícia
Rodrigues
provides
an
extremely
interesting
counterpoint
to
the
Enawene
Nawe
case
.
According
to
the
Javaé
,
time
may
be
divided
into
two
periods
-
an
anterior
period
marked
by
the
absence
of
sexual
relations
and
a
present
period
characterized
by
sex
and
procreation
.
Javaé
cosmology
centers
around
the
opposition
between
two
beings
,
the
aruanã
and
the
aõni
.
The
first
are
the
original
humans
who
have
been
unsuccesful
in
escaping
from
the
primitive
aquatic
world
.
Among
these
reigns
the
empire
of
consanguinity
in
a
world
in
which
neither
aging
nor
death
exists
and
food
is
abundant
.
Although
they
are
endowed
with
sexuality
and
beautiful
physiques
,
there
is
no
sex
life
because
all
are
brothers
and
sisters
to
one
another
.
During
rituals
their
movements
are
controlled
and
contrained
while
they
sing
beautiful
and
rhythmically
well
defined
melodies
.
In
contrast
,
the
aõni
inhabit
an
invisible
terrerstrial
dimension
and
are
strangers
to
one
another
.
Although
sexual
differences
cannot
be
observed
among
them
,
they
are
highly
sexual
and
insaciable
.
They
emit
unintelligible
grunts
and
are
ugly
,
agitated
,
impulsive
and
profoundly
avaracious
.
According
to
the
Javaé
,
incest
or
miserliness
with
food
results
in
humans
being
transformed
into
these
creatures
.
Humans
are
situated
at
an
intermediate
point
between
the
absolute
consanguinity
of
the
aruanã
and
the
absolute
affinity
of
the
aõni
.
Javaé
ceremonial
life
takes
its
central
theme
to
be
the
control
of
the
aõni
by
the
aruanã
.
In
this
contexts
,
the
lyrics
of
the
songs
of
the
aruanã
stress
the
immeasurable
sexual
appetite
of
the
aõni
in
contrast
to
their
disinterest
in
sex
.
The
Javaé
say
the
aõni
are
the
“
wives
”
of
the
aruanã
.
Beyond
the
ethnographic
differences
between
the
Javaé
and
the
Enawene
Nawe
it
is
very
tempting
to
draw
parallels
between
their
respective
spirit
worlds
.
A
comparison
of
the
Javaé
and
the
Enawene
Nawe
allows
us
to
immediately
affirm
that
gender
and
kinship
categories
are
indissociable
in
both
cases
.
However
,
the
association
between
the
two
orders
is
not
formed
in
the
same
manner
in
both
cases
.
While
the
Enawene
Nawe
conjoin
affinity
and
masculinity
and
consanguinity
and
femininity
,
the
contrary
occurs
among
the
Javaé
.
For
these
people
affinity
is
feminine
and
consanguinity
is
masculine
.
In
summation
,
Amerind
thought
seems
to
present
different
possibilities
for
the
combination
of
the
signs
of
gender
and
kinship
.
We
can
therefore
conclude
that
any
ethnographic
generalization
based
on
the
a
priori
association
between
a
given
gender
and
a
given
kinship
relation
will
be
untenable
.
A
native
model
This
perspective
on
the
analysis
of
gender
relations
enables
us
to
grasp
native
concepts
regarding
gender
.
The
spoken
language
of
the
Enawene
Nawe
contains
categories
that
express
sexual
dimorphis
:
ena
(
“
man
,
masculine
,
male
sex
”
)
and
wiro
(
woman
,
feminine
,
female
sex
”
)
which
can
be
used
for
humans
as
well
as
animals
and
spirits
.
The
native
terms
for
the
genitalia
are
akositi
and
talasiti
,
“
vagina
,
”
and
“
penis
,
”
respectively
.
Moreover
,
the
language
contains
gender
suffixes
-
re
and
-
lo
(
e
.
g
.
yaya
-
re
/
yaya
-
lo
,
“
masculine
and
feminine
shame
”
)
.
With
the
association
of
gender
suffixes
and
the
terms
that
designate
the
genitalia
,
the
Enawene
-
nawe
generate
a
new
pair
of
concepts
in
the
field
of
gender
relations
,
akosita
-
re
and
talasita
-
lo
,
in
order
to
designate
sexually
active
men
and
women
,
respectively
.
A
morphological
analysis
of
these
terms
results
in
the
following
literal
translation
:
akosita
-
re
=
“
vagina
+
masculine
gender
suffix
”
talasita
-
lo
=
“
penis
+
feminine
gender
suffix
”
The
native
classification
thus
appears
to
corroborate
precisely
the
perspective
of
sexuality
as
a
system
of
signs
(
of
relation
)
rather
than
a
mere
opposition
between
substantive
attributes
.
Moreover
,
the
categories
of
gender
define
a
system
that
articulates
two
assymmetrical
oppositions
(
term
and
relation
)
and
the
inverse
(
according
the
to
sexual
perspective
)
,
whereby
the
term
ena
(
“
man
”
)
is
to
the
relation
talasita
-
lo
(
“
woman
-
for
-
a
-
man
)
as
the
term
wiro
(
“
woman
”
)
is
to
the
relation
akosita
-
re
(
“
man
-
for
-
a
-
woman
”
)
.
We
can
sum
up
by
concluding
that
the
genital
organ
of
a
gender
is
the
sexual
organ
of
its
gender
opposite
.
References
ALENCAR
SÁ
,
Cleacir
.
1996
.
As
fases
da
vida
:
categorias
de
idade
enawene
(
ru
)
nawe
.
Ms
.
Cuiabá
:
OPAN
-
Operação
Amazônia
Nativa
COSTA
JR
.
,
Plácido
.
1995
.
A
pesca
na
sociedade
enawene
-
nawe
.
In
Estudo
das
Potencialidades
e
do
Manejo
dos
Recursos
Naturais
na
Área
indígena
Enawene
Nawe
.
OPAN
,
dat
.
DUMONT
,
Louis
.
1971
.
Introduction
à
deux
théories
d
’
anthropologie
sociale
.
Mouton
.
___________
.
1983
.
Stocktaking
1981
:
affinity
as
a
value
.
In
Affinity
as
Value
:
Marriage
Alliance
in
South
India
with
Comparative
Essays
on
Australia
.
Chicago
:
University
of
Chicago
Press
,
pp
.
145
-
214
LÉVI
-
STRAUSS
,
Claude
.
[
1949
]
1967
.
Les
Structures
Élémentaires
de
la
Parenté
.
Mouton
.
(
2nd
edition
)
MENDES
DOS
SANTOS
,
Gilton
.
1995
.
Agricultura
e
coleta
enawene
-
nawe
:
relações
sociais
e
representações
.
In
Estudo
das
Potencialidades
e
do
Manejo
dos
Recursos
Naturais
na
Área
indígena
Enawene
Nawe
.
OPAN
,
dat
.
OVERING
,
Joanna
.
1984
.
Dualism
as
an
expression
of
difference
and
danger
:
marriage
exchange
and
reciprocity
among
the
Piaroa
of
Venezuela
In
Kensinger
,
Kenneth
,
org
.
Marriage
Practice
in
Lowland
South
American
Societies
.
University
of
Illinois
Press
.
RODRIGUES
,
Patrícia
de
Mendonça
.
1995
.
Alguns
aspectos
da
construção
do
gênero
entre
os
Javaé
da
ilha
do
Bananal
.
In
Cadernos
Pagu
nº
5
,
pp
.
131
-
146
.
PAGU
:
Núcleo
de
Estudos
de
Gênero
/
UNICAMP
.
SILVA
,
Marcio
.
1995
.
Estrutura
social
enawene
-
nawe
:
um
rápido
esboço
.
In
Estudo
das
Potencialidades
e
do
Manejo
dos
Recursos
Naturais
na
Área
indígena
Enawene
Nawe
.
OPAN
,
dat
.
__________
.
1996
.
O
princípio
do
‘
terceiro
incluído
’
no
parentesco
sul
-
americano
:
o
caso
enawene
-
nawe
.
m
.
s
.
Conferência
apresentada
ao
ciclo
6a
.
do
mês
,
USP
/
FFLCH
,
em
18
de
outubro
de
1996
,
dat
.
VIVEIROS
DE
CASTRO
,
Eduardo
.
1986
.
Araweté
:
os
deuses
canibais
.
Rio
de
Janeiro
:
J
.
Zahar
Editor
.
__________
.
1990
.
“
Princípios
de
parâmetros
:
um
comentário
a
L
’
Exercice
de
la
Parenté
.
Comunicação
do
PPGAS
,
Vol
.
17
.
__________
.
1993
.
Alguns
aspectos
da
afinidade
no
dravidianato
amazônico
.
In
Viveiros
de
Castro
,
E
.
&
Carneiro
da
Cunha
,
M
.
(
orgs
.
)
Amazônia
:
etnologia
e
história
indígena
.
EDUSP
/
NHII
.
[
1
]
Mestre
em
Lingüistica
pela
Universidade
Estadual
de
Campinas
,
com
dissertação
sobre
fonologia
de
uma
língua
tupi
do
Alto
Xingu
(
kamayurá
)
,
e
Doutor
em
Antropologia
Social
pelo
Museu
Nacional
,
com
uma
tese
sobre
parentesco
em
um
povo
carib
da
Guiana
(
waimiri
-
atroari
)
.
É
atualmente
Professor
do
Departamento
de
Antropologia
da
Universidade
de
São
Paulo
,
onde
desenvolve
pesquisa
sobre
um
povo
aruak
da
Amazônia
meridional
(
enawene
-
nawe
)
.
Nos
últimos
dois
anos
publicou
os
artigos
“
Linguagem
e
Parentesco
”
(
Revista
de
Antropologia
v
.
42
n
.
1
/
2
,
1999
)
,
“
Tempo
e
espaço
entre
os
Enawene
-
Nawe
”
(
Revista
de
Antropologia
v
.
41
n
.
2
,
1998
)
e
“
Masculino
e
feminino
entre
os
Enawene
-
Nawe
”
(
Sexta
-
Feira
,
n
.
2
,
1998
)
.
Seus
temas
de
interesse
são
parentesco
,
estruturas
sociais
sul
americanas
,
lingüística
e
antropologia
.
[
2
]
These
designations
(
“
male
domination
”
and
“
sexual
equality
”
)
must
be
understood
as
shorthand
labels
.
Clearly
,
we
are
not
dealing
with
a
debate
between
supporters
of
an
unchanging
“
primitive
machismo
”
and
defenders
of
a
paleolithic
“
égalité
.
”
Here
it
is
only
necessary
to
emphasize
the
distinction
between
perspectives
that
define
,
in
Amerindian
societies
,
gender
relations
as
either
hierarchical
or
symmetrical
.
[
3
]
For
a
vision
of
the
relation
between
these
rites
and
Enawene
Nawe
age
categories
,
see
the
text
by
Cleacir
Alencar
Sá
(
1996
)
.
The
ethnography
presented
here
about
these
rites
derives
from
this
research
which
was
conducted
with
my
guidance
.
[
4
]
The
symbolism
of
honey
and
of
porridge
,
defined
respectively
as
“
masculine
vaginal
mucus
”
and
“
feminine
semen
”
calls
to
mind
the
classic
example
of
the
Araweté
(
Viveiros
de
Castro
1986
)
.
Indian
Journal
of
Human
Genetics
,
Vol
.
8
,
No
.
2
,
Jul
-
Dec
,
2002
pp
.
52
-
59
Review
Article
p53
in
Brain
Tumors
:
Basic
Science
Illuminates
Clinical
Oncology
Chitra
Sarkar
,
Sanjay
Mukhopadhyay
,
Mehar
Chand
Sharma
Departments
of
Pathology
,
All
India
Institute
of
Medical
Sciences
,
New
Delhi
,
India
.
Address
for
correspondence
:
Dr
.
Chitra
Sarkar
,
Professor
,
Room
No
.
1083
,
1st
Floor
,
Department
of
Pathology
,
All
India
Institute
of
Medical
Sciences
,
Ansari
Nagar
,
New
Delhi
110029
,
India
.
E
-
mail
:
sarkarcs
@
hotmail
.
com
Code
Number
:
hg02011
p53
is
a
tumor
suppressor
gene
known
as
the
"
guardian
of
the
genome
"
It
protects
cells
from
cancer
,
by
preventing
cells
with
damaged
DNA
from
proliferating
wantonly
.
This
function
is
achieved
by
various
unique
mechanisms
.
These
include
cell
-
cycle
arrest
,
which
facilitates
cell
repair
;
and
apoptosis
,
which
ensures
the
death
of
cells
too
severely
damaged
to
be
repaired
.
We
discuss
these
mechanisms
and
their
significance
in
tumor
biology
.
The
p53
gene
enjoys
the
dubious
distinction
of
being
the
single
most
common
target
for
genetic
alteration
in
human
tumors
.
We
discuss
here
the
role
of
p53
and
its
mutations
in
astrocytomas
and
other
brain
tumors
.
The
study
of
p53
in
astrocytomas
is
one
of
the
prime
examples
of
the
close
and
fruitful
collaboration
between
molecular
biology
and
clinical
practice
.
After
decades
of
research
,
it
is
now
accepted
that
p53
is
involved
both
in
the
initiation
as
well
as
the
progression
of
astrocytomas
.
A
multi
-
step
sequence
for
the
evolution
of
astrocytomas
to
glioblastomas
has
been
elucidated
.
The
prognostic
significance
of
p53
expression
in
brain
tumors
has
also
been
a
matter
of
extensive
research
.
Finally
,
we
touch
upon
the
therapeutic
implications
of
p53
in
astrocytomas
.
Given
the
dismal
consequences
of
the
absence
,
malfunction
or
mutation
of
this
gene
,
many
workers
have
tried
to
halt
the
progression
of
tumors
by
reintroducing
the
wild
-
type
gene
as
a
form
of
biological
therapy
.
This
approach
,
conceptualized
in
the
laboratory
and
actualized
at
the
bedside
,
holds
much
promise
for
the
treatment
of
these
challenging
tumors
.
p53
:
The
Gene
and
the
protein
p53
is
a
tumor
suppressor
gene
located
on
the
short
arm
of
chromosome
17
at
band
13
.
1
and
consists
of
11
exons
.
The
major
role
of
p53
is
the
maintenance
of
genomic
stability
.
It
is
therefore
referred
to
as
the
"
guardian
of
the
genome
"
and
is
thought
to
be
a
critical
"
gatekeeper
"
,
guarding
against
the
formation
of
cancers
.
1
There
is
evidence
to
show
that
p53
acts
as
a
"
molecular
policeman
"
in
preventing
the
propagation
of
genetically
damaged
cells
.
1
,
2
This
function
is
accomplished
either
directly
by
the
participation
of
p53
in
mechanisms
that
maintain
DNA
integrity
,
or
indirectly
,
by
the
induction
of
cell
-
cycle
arrest
,
senescence
,
or
apoptosis
of
damaged
cells
.
2
More
recent
data
shows
that
p53
also
has
an
important
role
in
angiogenesis
and
tumor
invasion
,
two
processes
fundamental
to
malignancy
.
2
The
protein
p53
,
derived
from
the
p53
gene
is
named
for
its
biochemical
nature
(
phosphoprotein
)
and
its
molecular
mass
(
53
kilo
daltons
)
.
It
is
also
called
tp53
,
or
tumor
protein
53
.
Three
independent
groups
,
using
different
approaches
3
-
5
to
the
study
of
tumorigenesis
,
discovered
p53
in
1979
.
Functions
of
the
p53
gene
(
i
)
p53
senses
DNA
damage
and
then
induces
growth
arrest
or
apoptosis
The
p53
gene
is
summoned
to
action
only
when
DNA
is
damaged
.
p53
functions
primarily
to
control
the
transcription
of
other
genes
,
the
goal
being
to
limit
the
proliferation
of
potentially
cancerous
cells
containing
damaged
DNA
.
This
involves
augmentation
or
enhancement
of
the
p53
gene
product
by
a
mechanism
that
is
poorly
understood
.
In
any
event
,
enhanced
p53
acts
as
a
transcription
factor
by
binding
to
DNA
.
The
genes
that
it
then
transcribes
function
to
attain
cell
cycle
arrest
and
/
or
apoptosis
.
(
ii
)
p53
and
cell
-
cycle
arrest
p53
suppresses
the
cell
cycle
at
the
G1
/
s
and
G2
/
m
transitions
.
To
cause
cell
cycle
arrest
,
p53
recruits
the
phosphoprotein
p21
(
also
called
Cip1
)
in
what
has
become
known
as
the
p53
/
mdm2
/
p21
pathway
.
p21
is
a
21
-
kilo
dalton
(
kda
)
protein
encoded
by
the
cdkn1
gene
,
that
acts
as
a
cdk
(
cyclin
-
dependent
kinase
)
inhibitor
.
6
It
inhibits
a
range
of
cdk
/
cyclin
complexes
required
for
cell
-
cycle
progression
.
The
inhibition
of
cdk
/
cyclin
complexes
by
p21
in
turn
prevents
the
phosphorylation
of
the
retinoblastoma
(
Rb
)
gene
that
normally
allows
cells
to
move
from
the
G1
to
the
S
phase
of
the
cell
cycle
.
This
pause
in
cell
cycling
(
"
G1
arrest
"
,
the
raison
d
'
être
of
p53
)
is
a
welcome
breather
for
the
cell
,
during
which
the
damage
inflicted
on
DNA
by
mutagens
is
repaired
.
7
To
achieve
this
repair
,
p53
activates
the
transcription
of
a
DNA
-
repair
protein
called
gadd45
(
growth
arrest
and
DNA
damage
-
inducible
)
.
8
If
gadd45
succeeds
in
its
mission
,
p53
selflessly
calls
for
its
own
down
-
regulation
(
by
activating
a
gene
called
mdm2
or
murine
double
minute
-
2
)
9
and
cell
division
is
allowed
to
proceed
as
before
.
This
sequence
is
illustrated
in
figure
1
.
(
iii
)
p53
and
apoptosis
However
,
if
gadd45
fails
in
its
endeavor
to
repair
the
DNA
damage
,
p53
consigns
the
potentially
malignant
cell
to
its
death
.
To
this
end
,
p53
activates
the
apoptosis
-
inducing
gene
bax
and
the
death
receptor
Gd
95
(
also
known
as
Fas
/
Apo1
)
while
inhibiting
the
expression
of
the
apoptosis
-
inhibiting
protein
bcl2
.
Thus
,
p53
has
a
pro
-
apoptotic
function
.
10
Tp53
gene
mutations
The
p53
gene
enjoys
the
dubious
distinction
of
being
the
single
most
common
target
for
genetic
alteration
in
human
tumors
.
11
,
12
This
is
possibly
because
of
the
diversity
of
the
biological
pathways
in
which
p53
is
involved
.
All
classes
of
mutations
,
deletions
,
insertions
,
transitions
and
transversions
occur
in
the
Tp53
gene
.
Several
mutational
"
hot
-
spots
"
have
been
observed
in
the
p53
gene
,
all
of
which
occur
within
four
highly
conserved
amino
acid
sequences
(
exons
5
to
8
)
.
Although
more
than
250
codons
in
the
Tp53
gene
are
potential
human
mutation
sites
,
the
most
frequently
observed
mutations
are
found
in
only
5
of
these
codons
-
175
,
245
,
248
,
249
and
273
.
13
There
are
two
ways
in
which
both
alleles
of
a
pair
of
p53
genes
can
be
knocked
out
and
rendered
ineffectual
.
In
most
cases
,
both
inactivating
mutations
occur
in
somatic
cells
of
the
organism
.
Less
commonly
,
some
individuals
inherit
a
mutant
allele
in
germ
-
line
cells
.
All
that
is
then
needed
to
inactivate
the
normal
allele
is
a
second
"
hit
"
during
the
life
of
the
individual
.
Such
individuals
are
said
to
have
the
Li
-
Fraumeni
syndrome
,
and
have
a
25
-
fold
greater
chance
of
developing
a
malignancy
by
45
to
50
years
of
age
compared
with
the
general
population
.
14
A
wide
variety
of
tumors
,
e
.
g
.
sarcomas
,
breast
cancer
,
leukemia
,
brain
tumors
and
adrenocortical
carcinomas
occur
in
these
patients
.
Further
,
these
tumors
tend
to
occur
at
younger
ages
and
are
prone
to
multiplicity
when
they
occur
as
part
of
the
Li
-
Fraumeni
syndrome
.
p53
mutations
can
have
three
consequences
.
15
Loss
of
functions
inherent
to
wild
-
type
p53
Dominance
of
the
mutant
p53
protein
over
the
wild
-
type
p53
protein
(
the
"
dominant
-
negative
effect
"
)
.
The
acquisition
of
transforming
potential
in
the
mutated
p53
,
independent
of
its
effect
on
the
wild
-
type
p53
.
Wild
-
type
and
Mutated
p53
protein
The
"
normal
"
p53
protein
is
called
"
wild
-
type
p53
"
,
as
opposed
to
the
deranged
"
mutated
"
p53
that
occurs
in
tumors
.
Under
physiologic
conditions
,
the
half
-
life
of
wild
-
type
p53
protein
is
short
(
15
-
30
minutes
)
,
presumably
because
of
ubiquitin
-
mediated
proteolysis
.
As
a
result
,
wild
-
type
p53
protein
is
present
at
very
low
levels
in
normal
cells
16
and
is
undetectable
by
immunohistochemistry
.
In
contrast
,
the
half
-
life
of
mutant
p53
protein
is
in
the
range
of
hours
,
resulting
in
high
,
immunohistochemically
detectable
levels
of
the
protein
.
For
all
practical
purposes
,
therefore
,
if
the
protein
can
be
detected
in
tissue
sections
by
immunohistochemistry
,
it
is
assumed
that
the
gene
is
mutated
.
16
However
,
this
generalization
is
not
absolute
.
Thus
,
not
every
mutation
of
the
p53
gene
results
in
immunohistochemically
detectable
p53
overexpression
17
.
By
the
same
token
,
not
all
immunohistochemically
detectable
p53
protein
positivity
results
from
p53
gene
mutations
.
Indeed
,
many
p53
immunopositive
cases
are
not
the
result
of
accumulation
of
mutant
p53
protein
,
but
rather
are
due
to
accumulation
/
overproduction
of
wild
-
type
p53
protein
.
The
accumulation
could
either
be
through
binding
of
wild
-
type
p53
to
altered
cellular
or
viral
proteins
or
simply
due
to
accumulation
of
wild
-
type
p53
in
rapidly
dividing
tumor
cells
independent
of
p53
mutation
.
Another
possibility
is
the
stabilization
of
wild
-
type
p53
protein
by
formation
of
complexes
.
18
,
19
Further
,
in
a
study
on
40
astrocytomas
it
was
found
that
p53
immunopositivity
was
governed
not
by
alterations
of
the
p53
gene
itself
but
by
other
putative
tumor
suppressor
genes
in
the
chromosomal
region
17p13
.
3
.
20
Similarly
,
tumors
with
p53
gene
mutations
but
with
p53
protein
immunonegativity
have
been
reported
.
This
has
been
attributed
to
synthesis
of
truncated
protein
which
either
lacks
or
cloaks
the
epitopic
region
or
prevents
its
binding
to
proteins
that
prolong
its
half
-
life
.
19
Thus
,
p53
immunohistochemistry
may
reflect
several
different
biological
conditions
other
than
p53
gene
mutation
.
However
,
immunohistochemistry
for
p53
protein
will
continue
to
play
a
significant
role
in
characterizing
the
biology
of
this
protein
in
neoplastic
conditions
because
of
the
relative
ease
of
the
methodology
compared
to
standard
molecular
techniques
.
p53
in
brain
tumors
Here
we
review
the
role
of
p53
in
brain
tumor
development
.
We
will
concentrate
on
astrocytic
tumors
,
which
are
the
commonest
primary
brain
tumors
,
and
in
whom
p53
plays
the
most
significant
role
.
The
role
of
p53
in
other
tumors
will
be
mentioned
briefly
.
The
many
findings
in
recent
years
that
have
demonstrated
the
importance
of
the
p53
gene
in
the
development
of
astrocytic
tumors
will
be
highlighted
.
We
will
also
discuss
the
potential
use
of
wild
-
type
p53
in
the
therapy
of
tumors
in
which
the
normal
p53
pathways
are
disrupted
or
dysfunctional
.
p53
in
astrocytic
tumors
According
to
the
who
,
21
these
tumors
can
be
divided
into
four
grades
:
Pilocytic
astrocytoma
(
WHO
grade
i
)
Diffuse
astrocytoma
(
WHO
grade
ii
)
Anaplastic
astrocytoma
(
WHO
grade
iii
)
Glioblastoma
multiforme
(
WHO
grade
iv
)
(
i
)
The
role
of
p53
in
astrocytoma
initiation
/
early
astrocytic
tumorigenesis
Evidence
for
causal
involvement
of
p53
in
glial
tumorigenesis
came
from
the
finding
that
expression
of
exogenous
wild
-
type
p53
in
glioblastoma
cell
lines
suppressed
their
growth
.
22
In
addition
,
tissue
culture
experiments
conducted
on
the
cortical
astrocytes
of
mice
indicated
that
loss
of
function
of
p53
resulted
in
the
immortalization
of
these
cells
.
In
addition
,
these
murine
cells
lacking
p53
activity
became
aneuploid
,
an
observation
that
was
in
keeping
with
the
aneuploidy
seen
in
human
astrocytomas
with
p53
mutations
.
23
The
notion
that
p53
mutations
are
an
important
factor
in
the
genesis
of
brain
tumors
was
also
supported
by
the
observation
that
patients
with
the
Li
-
Fraumeni
syndrome
(
see
above
)
have
a
high
(
13
%
)
incidence
of
brain
tumors
early
in
life
.
24
The
majority
of
brain
tumors
in
the
Li
-
Fraumeni
syndrome
are
indeed
astrocytomas
,
in
which
the
p53
gene
is
frequently
mutated
.
25
These
observations
are
important
because
mutations
in
the
germ
line
(
as
seen
in
p53
mutations
in
malignancies
of
the
brain
,
breast
,
bone
and
soft
tissue
)
are
believed
to
be
"
mutator
"
mutations
,
initiating
tumor
formation
.
Allelic
loss
of
chromosome
17p
26
and
mutations
of
Tp53
have
been
observed
in
approximately
one
-
third
of
adult
astrocytic
tumors
of
who
grades
ii
,
iii
and
iv
,
suggesting
that
inactivation
of
p53
is
an
early
event
in
the
formation
of
grade
ii
tumors
.
In
concordance
with
the
p53
gene
mutation
,
increasing
incidence
of
p53
protein
reactivity
has
been
reported
with
increasing
grades
of
malignancy
.
27
-
29
grade
ii
:
18
-
46
%
,
grade
iii
:
29
-
57
%
,
grade
iv
:
49
-
70
%
.
Most
Tp53
studies
have
concentrated
on
the
conserved
exons
5
to
8
.
However
,
some
studies
that
have
included
all
the
coding
sequences
(
exons
2
to
11
)
found
only
a
handful
of
mutations
outside
exons
5
to
8
.
The
three
most
commonly
mutated
codons
reported
,
in
order
of
frequency
,
are
273
,
248
and
175
.
In
other
human
tumors
,
the
most
frequently
mutated
codons
are
248
,
249
and
175
.
However
,
there
are
no
data
indicating
the
role
of
brain
tumor
-
specific
mutations
.
11
,
13
,
30
(
ii
)
p53
in
malignant
progression
of
astrocytic
tumors
Recurrence
and
malignant
transformation
are
important
features
of
astrocytic
tumors
.
19
,
31
Two
distinct
types
of
glioblastoma
are
now
recognized
,
based
on
the
types
of
genetic
alterations
that
characterize
them
.
Primary
glioblastomas
These
glioblastomas
rarely
show
p53
mutations
(
only
approximately
10
%
have
p53
mutations
)
but
rather
have
amplification
of
the
epidermal
growth
factor
receptor
(
EGFR
)
gene
on
chromosome
7
,
platelet
-
derived
growth
factor
receptor
(
PDGFR
)
gene
amplification
,
loss
of
deleted
in
colon
carcinoma
(
DCC
)
gene
expression
,
and
loss
of
heterozygosity
(
LOH
)
involving
chromosome
10
.
32
These
abnormalities
are
typically
found
in
older
patients
with
a
short
clinical
history
and
no
evidence
of
progression
from
a
lower
grade
astrocytoma
.
These
tumors
are
hence
termed
primary
,
or
de
novo
,
glioblastomas
.
32
Secondary
glioblastomas
More
than
65
%
of
these
glioblastomas
show
p53
mutations
,
of
which
more
than
90
%
were
already
present
in
the
first
biopsy
(
original
tumor
)
.
They
occur
in
younger
patients
whose
tumors
have
progressed
from
a
lower
grade
astrocytoma
over
a
comparatively
long
time
period
.
It
is
possible
that
the
genomic
instability
associated
with
p53
loss
facilitates
the
accumulation
of
additional
genetic
mutations
that
promote
the
transformation
to
secondary
glioblastomas
.
Studies
that
have
compared
pairs
of
primary
and
recurrent
astrocytic
tumors
have
found
that
both
sets
of
tumors
harbored
similar
p53
mutations
.
The
percentage
of
glioma
cells
with
p53
protein
increased
from
the
first
biopsy
,
suggesting
that
the
recurrence
or
progression
occurred
by
clonal
expansion
of
the
p53
-
mutated
cells
in
the
primary
tumor
.
33
-
35
Our
own
data
show
that
the
percentage
of
tumors
that
are
p53
positive
increases
at
recurrence
,
irrespective
of
the
initial
grade
of
the
tumor
.
Thus
,
56
.
25
%
of
primary
tumors
were
initially
p53
positive
,
while
in
recurrent
tumors
associated
with
malignant
progression
this
frequency
increased
to
70
.
83
%
.
Further
,
recurrence
was
associated
with
increase
in
the
percentage
of
p53
immunopositive
cells
.
No
case
that
was
initially
p53
-
positive
in
our
study
became
negative
at
recurrence
.
In
conformity
with
the
literature
,
we
found
a
higher
degree
of
p53
-
positivity
in
secondary
glioblastomas
(
84
%
)
compared
with
de
novo
glioblastomas
(
43
%
)
27
.
These
genetically
distinct
types
of
glioblastoma
cannot
be
distinguished
on
histological
grounds
alone
,
and
it
remains
uncertain
whether
survival
after
diagnosis
is
different
in
these
groups
.
32
,
36
p53
brain
tumors
To
summarize
,
although
the
role
of
p53
in
the
recurrence
and
progression
of
astrocytomas
is
still
debated
,
there
is
growing
evidence
34
,
37
-
40
that
:
a
)
Genetic
alterations
occur
with
equal
frequency
both
in
low
-
and
high
-
grade
astrocytoma
,
indicating
a
role
for
p53
in
the
formation
/
initiation
of
low
-
grade
disease
.
b
)
p53
also
has
a
role
in
the
progression
from
low
-
grade
astrocytoma
to
secondary
glioblastoma
.
c
)
p53
as
a
prognostic
factor
in
astrocytic
tumors
p53
mutations
correlate
with
prognosis
in
a
number
of
human
cancers
,
including
cancers
of
the
breast
,
stomach
,
colorectum
and
lung
.
41
,
42
In
these
tumors
,
a
high
rate
of
p53
mutation
connotes
increased
tumor
aggressiveness
,
a
high
metastatic
rate
and
poor
prognosis
.
The
predictive
role
of
p53
mutations
in
astrocytomas
however
is
still
poorly
understood
.
Recent
studies
indicate
that
in
low
-
grade
astrocytomas
that
progress
to
glioblastoma
,
the
frequency
of
p53
mutations
is
very
high
,
of
the
order
of
58
-
83
%
.
28
,
43
Neoplasms
with
p53
mutations
also
appear
to
progress
more
frequently
than
neoplasms
without
the
mutation
,
but
evidence
for
this
correlation
remains
circumstantial
.
44
-
46
The
time
interval
to
progression
appears
to
be
shorter
in
patients
with
low
-
grade
astrocytomas
that
carry
a
p53
mutation
.
28
Hence
,
it
seems
that
low
-
grade
astrocytomas
with
p53
mutations
progress
to
glioblastomas
faster
and
more
often
than
tumors
without
these
mutations
.
The
effect
on
patient
survival
,
however
,
is
still
murky
,
with
some
studies
showing
that
p53
mutations
have
no
effect
on
clinical
outcome
and
survival
.
45
,
47
,
48
Others
propose
that
low
-
grade
astrocytomas
that
carry
a
p53
mutation
appear
to
be
associated
with
a
shorter
survival
.
49
It
must
be
noted
that
some
of
these
studies
are
based
on
childhood
malignant
gliomas
,
which
may
be
biased
because
p53
mutations
in
children
occur
almost
exclusively
in
brainstem
gliomas
,
which
are
known
to
have
a
very
poor
prognosis
.
On
the
other
hand
,
the
relatively
poor
prognosis
of
gemistocytic
astrocytomas
may
be
due
to
the
fact
that
they
have
a
higher
frequency
of
p53
mutations
.
In
contrast
,
some
authors
claim
that
the
existence
of
p53
mutations
in
recurrent
high
-
grade
tumors
may
indicate
a
better
prognosis
.
29
Our
studies
have
shown
that
p53
positive
anaplastic
astrocytomas
had
significantly
shorter
symptom
-
free
survival
than
p53
negative
tumors
.
No
difference
in
survival
,
based
on
p53
positivity
,
was
observed
in
the
glioblastoma
multiforme
group2
.
7
,
50
p53
in
other
brain
tumors
In
contrast
to
astrocytomas
,
p53
mutations
do
not
seem
to
play
a
significant
role
in
the
evolution
of
ependymoma
,
51
pineocytoma
/
pineoblastoma
52
or
medulloblastoma
(
in
which
p53
mutations
are
found
in
only
5
-
10
%
of
cases
)
.
53
The
role
of
p53
in
pilocytic
astrocytoma
25
,
54
is
controversial
.
Earlier
studies
have
reported
a
low
mutation
frequency
in
these
tumors
,
whereas
some
recent
studies
that
have
used
more
inclusive
mutation
detection
systems
have
reported
that
p53
mutations
may
occur
in
up
to
35
%
of
pilocytic
astrocytoma
.
55
Other
neoplasms
in
which
p53
mutations
do
occur
include
gliosarcoma
,
56
oligodendroglioma
and
mixed
oligoastrocytoma
.
57
-
59
Two
studies
on
oligodendrogliomas
suggest
that
the
demonstration
of
p53
in
tumor
cells
is
associated
with
reduced
patient
survival
.
58
,
59
p53
in
Gene
therapy
It
was
not
long
before
the
scientific
community
realized
that
p53
was
ideal
for
therapeutic
use
.
It
was
observed
that
radio
-
and
chemo
-
sensitive
tumors
such
as
teratocarcinomas
and
childhood
acute
lymphoblastic
leukemias
shared
the
property
of
retention
of
the
normal
p53
gene
and
protein
.
60
In
contrast
,
radio
-
and
chemo
-
resistant
tumors
such
as
non
-
small
cell
lung
cancers
and
colon
cancers
,
frequently
carried
p53
mutations
.
These
observations
gave
rise
to
the
theory
that
chemotherapeutic
agents
killed
cells
by
inducing
apoptosis
rather
than
by
causing
cellular
damage
61
.
p53
is
now
being
used
in
therapeutic
trials
in
which
wild
-
type
p53
is
being
introduced
into
tumors
with
p53
mutations
.
This
maneuver
is
expected
to
restore
the
chemosensitivity
of
these
tumors
.
62
,
63
Wild
-
type
p53
has
also
been
used
as
a
stand
-
alone
therapy
,
with
the
expectation
that
it
would
induce
tumor
cell
death
by
senescence
and
apoptosis
.
64
So
far
,
the
vector
of
choice
for
the
transfer
of
p53
into
cells
seems
to
be
the
adenovirus
.
64
,
65
Many
such
studies
have
been
conducted
using
animal
models
or
experimental
glioma
cell
lines
,
and
have
shown
encouraging
responses
to
the
introduction
of
wild
-
type
p53
,
including
apoptosis
,
inhibition
of
tumor
growth
and
even
tumor
regression
.
64
-
66
Phase
I
clinical
trials
are
currently
being
conducted
to
clarify
whether
specific
and
non
-
specific
cytotoxic
effects
may
occur
after
p53
therapy
.
An
extended
family
:
the
"
Big
Brother
"
of
p53
For
almost
20
years
after
its
discovery
,
the
p53
gene
was
the
only
known
gene
of
its
kind
,
both
structurally
and
functionally
.
That
changed
in
1997
with
the
discovery
of
the
p73
gene
,
dubbed
the
"
Big
Brother
"
of
p53
67
.
Located
on
1p36
,
this
gene
encodes
a
protein
similar
to
the
p53
protein
,
its
talents
including
cell
cycle
arrest
and
apoptosis
.
68
Deletions
of
the
gene
locus
for
p73
are
common
in
a
variety
of
tumors
,
including
neuroblastoma
and
colon
and
breast
cancers
.
Much
interest
is
now
focused
on
this
"
relative
"
of
the
p53
gene
.
References
Levine
AJ
,
Momand
J
,
Finlay
CA
.
The
p53
tumor
suppressor
gene
.
Nature
199
;
351
:
453
-
6
.
Fulci
G
,
Ishii
N
,
Van
Meir
EG
.
P53
and
brain
tumors
:
from
gene
mutations
to
gene
therapy
.
Brain
Pathol
1998
;
8
:
599
-
613
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Lane
DP
,
Crawford
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.
T
antigen
is
bound
to
a
host
protein
in
SV40
-
transformed
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Nature
1979
;
278
:
261
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3
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DeLeo
AB
,
Jay
G
,
Appella
E
,
Dubois
GC
,
Law
LW
,
Old
LJ
.
Detection
of
a
transformation
-
related
antigen
in
chemically
induced
sarcomas
and
other
transformed
cells
of
the
mouse
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Proc
Natl
Acad
Sci
U
S
A
1979
;
76
:
2420
-
4
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Linzer
DIH
,
Levine
AJ
.
Characterization
of
a
54K
Dalton
cellular
SV40
tumor
antigen
present
in
SV40
-
transformed
cells
and
uninfected
embryonal
carcinoma
cells
.
Cell
1979
;
17
:
43
-
8
.
Harper
JW
,
Adami
GR
,
Wei
N
,
Keyomarsi
K
,
Elledge
SJ
.
The
p21
Cdk
-
interacting
protein
Cip
1
is
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M
.
Lonely
no
more
.
p53
finds
its
kin
in
a
tumor
suppressor
haven
.
Cell
1997
;
90
:
829
-
32
.
Jost
CA
,
Marin
MC
,
Kaelin
WG
Jr
.
p73
is
a
simian
[
correction
of
human
]
p53
-
related
protein
that
can
induce
apoptosis
.
Nature
1997
;
389
:
191
-
4
.
Copyright
2002
-
the
Indian
Society
of
Human
Genetics
The
following
images
related
to
this
document
are
available
:
An
INEA
executive
statement
by
Dave
Rossin
Assisted
by
Gerald
Clark
,
Jorge
Spitalnik
,
Robert
Nickell
.
,
Dan
Meneley
,
Manning
Muntzing
,
Bertrand
Barre
,
Walter
Kato
and
several
others
SUMMARY
QUESTIONS
THAT
ARE
ASKED
ABOUT
NUCLEAR
POWER
PLANTS
:
What
could
terrorists
do
to
nuclear
power
plants
,
spent
fuel
storage
or
fuel
cycle
facilities
?
Could
terrorists
cause
the
release
of
radioactivity
?
What
harm
could
come
to
individuals
or
populations
from
radioactivity
released
or
spread
by
terrorists
?
We
have
chosen
to
discuss
these
questions
to
provide
a
sound
overview
for
people
to
consider
.
The
brief
answers
to
our
questions
are
:
While
actual
damage
would
be
hard
to
inflict
,
facilities
would
be
forced
to
shut
down
for
inspection
and
damage
assessment
,
and
might
be
kept
down
for
extended
periods
for
political
re
-
examination
of
policy
issues
.
It
is
very
unlikely
that
any
significant
amounts
of
radioactivity
would
be
released
.
It
is
hard
to
imagine
any
way
for
actual
harm
to
come
to
either
individuals
or
populations
from
radioactivity
.
In
summary
,
our
examination
of
these
questions
leads
to
an
important
finding
:
Public
confusion
and
even
panic
could
pose
far
greater
risks
than
physical
damage
to
facilities
or
actual
dangers
from
potential
exposure
of
people
to
radiation
.
MAIN
PAPER
After
9
/
11
there
was
a
rush
of
TV
and
newspaper
reports
about
important
places
and
their
potential
vulnerability
to
terrorist
attacks
.
Typically
,
statements
included
concern
about
the
ability
of
nuclear
power
plants
to
withstand
terrorist
attacks
,
from
World
Trade
Center
-
type
airplane
strikes
to
assaults
by
trained
and
heavily
-
armed
cadres
.
Expert
statements
in
response
were
often
met
with
skepticism
,
but
the
facts
and
engineering
realities
are
very
clear
:
nuclear
plants
represent
hardened
targets
and
already
had
strong
security
forces
in
place
.
The
charge
was
made
that
nuclear
plants
were
not
designed
for
such
attacks
.
They
were
not
.
That
concept
was
not
in
the
minds
of
the
designers
and
regulators
.
Their
objective
was
to
keep
radioactivity
and
contamination
WITHIN
the
facility
in
the
event
of
an
accident
.
After
9
/
11
,
analysts
re
-
examined
the
designs
of
nuclear
plant
systems
and
structures
.
The
major
design
criterion
that
contributes
to
the
ruggedness
of
the
reinforced
containment
buildings
that
surround
the
primary
reactor
system
is
the
requirement
to
withstand
internal
pressure
during
an
accident
without
leakage
.
This
ruggedness
enables
reinforced
concrete
containment
structures
to
protect
against
winds
of
up
to
300
miles
per
hour
,
a
telephone
pole
or
tree
as
a
missile
carried
by
such
a
hurricane
or
tornado
,
and
flammable
liquids
such
as
gasoline
or
oil
.
The
barriers
to
protect
against
radiation
releases
have
proved
to
be
very
robust
.
An
attack
that
could
damage
auxiliary
equipment
or
electrical
switchyards
would
be
a
serious
matter
,
but
the
reactors
were
designed
for
safe
shutdown
even
if
these
systems
were
lost
.
During
the
mid
-
1970
s
,
the
U
.
S
.
AEC
initiated
classified
studies
on
the
potential
for
sabotage
at
commercial
nuclear
power
plants
.
The
work
was
done
at
Sandia
Laboratories
with
teams
of
engineers
with
nuclear
plant
design
and
operating
experience
working
alongside
weapons
designers
and
top
security
experts
.
The
studies
showed
that
even
if
knowledgeable
insiders
could
disable
key
safety
equipment
,
redundant
systems
would
provide
backup
protection
.
In
scenarios
where
all
engineered
safety
systems
were
ruined
,
there
was
still
a
period
of
hours
to
take
corrective
actions
before
onset
of
core
damage
.
The
containment
structure
is
the
outer
plant
barrier
of
defense
-
in
-
depth
.
Major
damage
to
massive
walls
and
pipes
would
have
to
be
caused
before
radiation
could
be
released
outside
the
containment
building
.
As
a
result
of
these
and
other
studies
,
recommendations
were
made
that
added
to
defense
against
both
external
and
internal
threats
.
An
example
is
the
"
two
-
man
rule
"
that
precludes
a
single
individual
from
being
in
the
containment
alone
and
possibly
out
of
sight
of
a
person
or
tele
-
monitors
.
The
analysts
also
noted
that
the
larger
the
number
of
adversaries
in
the
scenario
,
the
higher
the
likelihood
of
detection
and
neutralization
.
Intelligence
services
of
nations
have
a
better
chance
of
discovering
plots
,
especially
now
that
they
are
better
prepared
and
supported
.
The
AEC
followed
the
study
with
extensive
regulations
that
required
hardened
guard
positions
,
weapons
training
and
security
fences
.
In
2002
the
Nuclear
Energy
Institute
requested
the
Electric
Power
Research
Institute
to
study
the
potential
damage
that
could
be
caused
by
deliberately
crashing
a
large
commercial
jet
airplane
into
containment
structures
at
nuclear
power
plants
,
as
in
a
World
Trade
Center
scenario
.
Detailed
structural
analyses
showed
that
a
direct
strike
by
either
the
fuselage
or
an
engine
would
not
breach
or
perforate
post
-
tensioned
or
reinforced
containment
walls
except
at
unrealistically
high
impact
velocities
.
Through
-
wall
penetration
was
found
for
reinforced
concrete
shield
buildings
on
the
exterior
of
free
-
standing
steel
containment
structures
,
but
no
subsequent
failure
of
the
steel
shell
was
shown
.
Penetration
of
other
,
less
rugged
structures
,
such
as
BWR
reactor
buildings
,
auxiliary
buildings
,
and
diesel
-
generator
buildings
causes
extensive
dispersal
of
jet
fuel
and
fire
damage
.
However
,
even
penetration
and
fire
damage
should
not
prevent
safe
shutdown
.
[
An
unclassified
press
release
on
the
NEI
/
EPRI
study
was
issued
in
January
2003
,
and
excerpts
were
published
in
the
February
2003
issue
of
Nuclear
News
.
The
work
was
presented
to
the
Nuclear
Regulatory
Commission
staff
in
December
2002
and
to
the
Advisory
Committee
on
Reactor
Safeguards
in
June
2003
.
]
In
the
1980
s
Canada
s
Ontario
Hydro
Co
.
studied
the
possible
effects
of
crashing
a
747
into
a
containment
building
at
a
commercial
CANDU
reactor
.
A
perfect
hit
was
assumed
,
with
all
four
engines
impacting
the
building
at
the
same
time
.
The
analysis
showed
that
although
there
would
be
some
concrete
spallation
off
the
inside
of
the
walls
,
but
no
building
penetration
would
occur
.
After
9
/
1l
,
several
nuclear
adversary
groups
published
articles
which
claimed
that
spent
fuel
storage
pools
would
be
vulnerable
to
aircraft
attack
.
In
fact
,
some
pools
are
covered
by
light
structures
.
While
roofs
could
be
destroyed
,
the
pools
themselves
have
very
thick
reinforced
concrete
walls
.
These
walls
are
generally
behind
other
large
structures
like
water
storage
tanks
and
equipment
bays
,
and
would
be
very
difficult
to
breach
.
The
pool
water
above
the
stored
spent
fuel
is
10
to
20
feet
deep
,
and
would
deaden
the
impact
of
debris
falling
from
overhead
.
Safety
of
spent
fuel
in
a
storage
pool
depends
on
keeping
the
fuel
under
water
.
Draining
of
pool
water
is
extremely
unlikely
,
and
there
are
many
actions
that
could
be
taken
to
pump
more
water
into
a
pool
,
if
that
should
ever
become
necessary
.
The
conclusion
of
the
sabotage
work
and
of
numerous
other
studies
on
accidents
and
attacks
on
power
reactors
is
that
while
not
impossible
,
the
likelihood
of
actual
release
of
a
significant
amount
of
radioactivity
is
extremely
low
.
Thus
,
the
probability
of
actual
radiation
exposure
to
members
of
the
public
from
a
terrorist
attack
or
sabotage
is
also
extremely
low
.
Nevertheless
,
it
is
widely
recognized
that
any
attack
on
a
nuclear
facility
would
result
in
sensational
news
reporting
and
front
page
media
attention
.
The
actions
of
the
9
/
11
suicide
terrorists
served
warning
that
nuclear
facilities
should
be
re
-
examined
for
new
types
of
threats
.
Additional
physical
barriers
,
detection
equipment
and
inspection
procedures
for
incoming
trucks
and
other
shipments
have
been
added
.
Personnel
security
has
been
upgraded
.
Guard
forces
now
have
night
detection
equipment
,
more
advanced
weapons
and
more
intense
training
.
These
technical
discussions
refer
specifically
to
licensed
U
.
S
.
water
-
cooled
power
reactors
.
Many
power
reactors
in
other
nations
comply
with
criteria
based
on
USNRC
regulations
.
Other
designs
including
Soviet
-
design
reactors
have
been
examined
on
a
case
-
by
-
case
basis
.
Security
has
become
a
higher
priority
at
every
nuclear
station
around
the
world
.
Although
information
is
not
public
,
threat
reduction
technology
and
training
suitable
to
specific
plants
and
sites
have
been
upgraded
.
The
IAEA
and
WANO
provide
advice
and
assistance
;
however
each
nation
is
responsible
for
the
safety
and
security
of
its
own
facilities
.
Since
9
/
11
,
managers
of
power
reactors
,
as
well
as
bridges
,
dams
and
tall
buildings
all
over
the
world
,
have
re
-
examined
and
strengthened
their
security
programs
.
Operation
and
Security
:
All
nuclear
power
plants
are
required
to
have
security
plans
.
Security
personnel
are
trained
to
operate
detection
and
surveillance
systems
,
to
handle
firearms
,
and
to
understand
directions
and
orders
of
security
managers
.
New
and
more
rigorous
training
programs
have
been
developed
and
are
being
conducted
at
all
plants
.
A
basic
principle
of
security
planning
is
secrecy
of
the
plan
itself
is
that
plans
cannot
be
published
or
released
to
members
of
the
public
.
Only
properly
authorized
persons
should
have
access
to
security
plans
,
and
in
some
cases
,
only
to
the
portions
of
the
plans
they
need
to
know
.
Success
of
security
may
turn
on
the
potential
adversary
not
being
sure
of
,
or
even
aware
of
,
fundamental
aspects
of
plans
.
There
is
no
justification
for
exceptions
to
this
policy
,
even
in
the
case
of
nuclear
power
plants
for
which
the
tradition
has
been
to
include
public
participation
in
the
licensing
process
.
Communications
plans
are
vital
elements
of
an
emergency
plan
.
These
plans
are
the
vehicles
for
setting
up
cooperation
between
state
,
county
and
local
jurisdictions
,
law
-
enforcement
departments
,
the
NRC
,
FBI
,
the
Coast
Guard
and
the
Department
of
Homeland
Security
.
The
9
/
1l
events
have
led
to
increased
requirements
for
emergency
drills
.
Drills
are
designed
to
test
communications
links
,
familiarity
with
emergency
plan
steps
and
requirements
,
and
the
ability
of
various
administrative
entities
to
work
together
.
Drills
are
designed
by
experts
to
challenge
participants
.
Rather
than
being
just
walk
-
throughs
of
pre
-
planned
steps
,
drills
are
designed
to
find
weaknesses
and
failures
,
and
to
fix
them
.
A
headline
about
a
facility
having
"
failures
"
in
emergency
exercises
really
means
that
drills
are
working
,
lessons
will
be
learned
,
and
improvements
will
be
made
.
The
US
NRC
has
initiated
a
pilot
program
with
a
number
of
United
States
nuclear
utilities
to
develop
and
test
force
-
on
-
force
drills
which
simulate
an
attack
on
a
plant
by
a
highly
armed
terrorist
group
.
These
drills
not
only
test
training
and
compliance
with
regulations
,
but
contacts
with
local
,
regional
and
state
law
enforcement
agencies
,
officials
and
the
media
.
The
purpose
is
to
find
problems
and
areas
of
improvement
before
these
teams
are
ever
needed
.
The
nuclear
power
industry
is
the
only
private
-
sector
entity
that
undergoes
these
kinds
of
exercises
and
security
requirements
.
While
expensive
,
they
add
to
deterrence
of
attacks
.
Any
adversary
sophisticated
enough
to
plan
an
armed
attack
would
know
that
the
chances
of
causing
damage
would
be
very
small
,
and
the
risks
of
being
thwarted
or
killed
before
reaching
the
plant
are
serious
.
Pathways
for
Releases
of
Radiation
Real
danger
to
members
of
the
public
would
have
to
involve
the
dispersal
of
radioactive
material
.
We
have
argued
above
that
a
terrorist
attack
is
unlikely
to
result
in
any
significant
release
of
radioactive
material
,
certainly
nothing
on
the
scale
of
Chernobyl
,
or
even
Windscale
.
These
releases
were
caused
by
design
characteristics
and
equipment
problems
,
and
further
actions
of
operators
and
managers
,
not
from
any
external
attack
.
And
despite
the
extensive
publicity
about
radiation
,
the
only
deaths
from
the
Chernobyl
accident
were
plant
workers
.
A
number
of
thyroid
cancers
have
been
detected
in
children
due
to
drinking
of
local
cows
milk
.
These
cases
have
been
treated
successfully
,
according
to
IAEA
studies
.
In
the
event
of
an
actual
radiation
release
,
data
from
radiation
detectors
and
modeling
of
wind
and
other
weather
conditions
would
be
used
to
predict
where
and
when
any
members
of
the
public
might
be
exposed
.
Most
likely
,
members
of
the
public
would
be
best
protected
in
the
short
term
by
remaining
in
their
homes
.
Sheltering
would
best
be
achieved
by
staying
inside
a
building
,
and
that
would
certainly
minimize
the
chance
of
breathing
any
contaminated
air
.
Experts
,
both
on
radiation
and
on
personal
behavior
,
warn
that
the
greatest
risk
would
come
from
the
possibility
of
panic
.
An
attempt
by
a
lot
of
people
to
evacuate
a
particular
area
in
panic
could
result
in
accidents
,
fights
,
heart
attacks
,
and
more
panic
.
Panic
makes
honest
and
verifiable
reporting
extremely
important
.
For
this
reason
,
current
emergency
plans
emphasize
the
need
for
nuclear
plant
managers
to
work
with
the
local
media
in
advance
to
build
a
better
understanding
of
radiation
hazard
in
terms
of
familiar
immediate
and
long
-
term
risks
.
Likewise
,
national
and
international
nuclear
organizations
are
strengthening
their
efforts
to
communicate
effectively
and
to
establish
communication
channels
to
major
news
outlets
and
organizations
.
Low
Doses
of
Radiation
and
International
Standards
We
live
in
a
world
where
there
is
a
small
amount
of
background
of
radiation
all
the
time
.
It
comes
from
the
Sun
,
from
the
earth
s
crust
,
and
building
materials
.
In
the
extended
debate
about
nuclear
power
,
the
subject
of
effects
on
health
from
low
additional
doses
of
radiation
has
been
confusing
and
even
frightening
to
some
people
.
Calculations
of
the
possible
effects
of
tiny
additional
amounts
of
radiation
,
similar
to
and
often
within
the
margins
of
variation
of
natural
background
levels
,
have
been
used
to
project
the
incidence
of
deadly
cancers
in
a
population
.
The
theory
is
simple
and
the
numbers
are
easy
to
calculate
.
The
maximum
theoretical
numbers
of
cancers
have
often
been
turned
into
headlines
.
However
,
most
experts
recognize
that
these
predicted
numbers
of
cancers
are
not
real
.
In
fact
,
the
generally
used
theory
predicts
a
maximum
theoretical
number
of
cancer
cases
for
an
exposed
population
,
and
then
states
that
the
actual
number
is
somewhere
between
that
number
and
zero
,
and
for
low
individual
doses
,
it
is
most
likely
zero
.
Public
Communication
and
the
News
Media
It
is
impossible
to
overstate
the
importance
of
public
understanding
of
nuclear
power
issues
,
of
radiation
and
of
threats
from
terrorism
.
Much
of
the
present
negative
impression
people
have
about
radioactivity
and
nuclear
power
stems
from
our
own
failure
as
scientists
and
engineers
,
despite
decades
of
effort
,
to
build
a
broad
public
understanding
of
the
basic
scientific
facts
about
radiation
.
That
is
why
we
believe
it
is
important
to
work
with
journalists
,
local
and
national
press
,
TV
news
producers
and
writers
,
and
with
interested
elected
representatives
and
their
staffs
.
As
more
people
with
public
responsibilities
become
better
informed
about
radiation
,
safety
and
security
,
they
will
be
able
to
ask
the
right
questions
and
evaluate
the
answers
they
get
.
Then
there
is
hope
that
if
a
terrorist
attack
ever
occurs
on
a
nuclear
facility
,
the
public
is
more
likely
to
be
better
served
with
facts
rather
than
sensational
headlines
.
THIS
IS
AN
EXECUTIVE
STATEMENT
OF
THE
INEA
in
collaboration
with
the
International
Nuclear
Societies
Council
.
It
represents
the
views
of
the
author
but
has
been
endorsed
by
the
Executive
Committee
of
the
Academy
as
a
contribution
to
the
responsible
development
of
civil
nuclear
energy
.
by
Arundhati
Roy
IVE
been
asked
to
speak
about
"
How
to
confront
Empire
?
"
Its
a
huge
question
,
and
I
have
no
easy
answers
.
When
we
speak
of
confronting
"
Empire
,
"
we
need
to
identify
what
"
Empire
"
means
.
Does
it
mean
the
U
.
S
.
government
(
and
its
European
satellites
)
,
the
World
Bank
,
the
International
Monetary
Fund
,
the
World
Trade
Organization
,
and
multinational
corporations
?
Or
is
it
more
than
that
?
In
many
countries
,
Empire
has
sprouted
other
subsidiary
heads
,
some
dangerous
byproducts
nationalism
,
religious
bigotry
,
fascism
and
,
of
course
,
terrorism
.
All
these
march
arm
in
arm
with
the
project
of
corporate
globalization
.
Let
me
illustrate
what
I
mean
.
India
the
worlds
biggest
democracy
is
currently
at
the
forefront
of
the
corporate
globalization
project
.
Its
"
market
"
of
one
billion
people
is
being
prised
open
by
the
WTO
.
Corporatisation
and
Privatization
are
being
welcomed
by
the
government
and
the
Indian
elite
.
It
is
not
a
coincidence
that
the
Prime
Minister
,
the
Home
Minister
,
the
Disinvestment
Minister
the
men
who
signed
the
deal
with
Enron
in
India
,
the
men
who
are
selling
the
countrys
infrastructure
to
corporate
multinationals
,
the
men
who
want
to
privatize
water
,
electricity
,
oil
,
coal
,
steel
,
health
,
education
and
telecommunication
admirers
of
the
RSS
.
The
RSS
is
a
right
wing
,
ultra
-
nationalist
Hindu
guild
,
which
has
openly
admired
Hitler
and
his
methods
.
The
dismantling
of
democracy
is
proceeding
with
the
speed
and
efficiency
of
a
Structural
Adjustment
Programme
.
While
the
project
of
corporate
globalization
rips
through
peoples
lives
in
India
,
massive
privatization
,
and
labor
"
reforms
"
are
pushing
people
off
their
land
and
out
of
their
jobs
.
Hundreds
of
impoverished
farmers
are
committing
suicide
by
consuming
pesticide
.
Reports
of
starvation
deaths
are
coming
in
from
all
over
the
country
.
While
the
elite
journeys
to
its
imaginary
destination
somewhere
near
the
top
of
the
world
,
the
dispossessed
are
spiraling
downwards
into
crime
and
chaos
.
This
climate
of
frustration
and
national
disillusionment
is
the
perfect
breeding
ground
,
history
tells
us
,
for
fascism
.
The
two
arms
of
the
Indian
government
have
evolved
the
perfect
pincer
action
.
While
one
arm
is
busy
selling
India
off
in
chunks
,
the
other
,
to
divert
attention
,
is
orchestrating
a
howling
,
baying
chorus
of
Hindu
nationalism
and
religious
fascism
.
It
is
conducting
nuclear
tests
,
rewriting
history
books
,
burning
churches
,
and
demolishing
mosques
.
Censorship
,
surveillance
,
the
suspension
of
civil
liberties
and
human
rights
,
the
definition
of
who
is
an
Indian
citizen
and
who
is
not
,
particularly
with
regard
to
religious
minorities
,
is
becoming
common
practice
now
.
Last
March
,
in
the
state
of
Gujarat
,
two
thousand
Muslims
were
butchered
in
a
state
-
sponsored
pogrom
.
Muslim
women
were
specially
targeted
.
They
were
stripped
,
and
gang
-
raped
,
before
being
burned
alive
.
Arsonists
burned
and
looted
shops
,
homes
,
textiles
mills
and
mosques
.
More
than
a
hundred
and
fifty
thousand
Muslims
have
been
driven
from
their
homes
.
The
economic
base
of
the
Muslim
community
has
been
devastated
.
While
Gujarat
burned
,
the
Indian
Prime
Minister
was
on
MTV
promoting
his
new
poems
.
In
January
this
year
,
the
government
that
orchestrated
the
killing
was
voted
back
into
office
with
a
comfortable
majority
.
Nobody
has
been
punished
for
the
genocide
.
Narendra
Modi
,
architect
of
the
pogrom
,
proud
member
of
the
RSS
,
has
embarked
on
his
second
term
as
the
Chief
Minister
of
Gujarat
.
If
he
were
Saddam
Hussein
,
of
course
each
atrocity
would
have
been
on
CNN
.
But
since
hes
not
and
since
the
Indian
"
market
"
is
open
to
global
investors
the
massacre
is
not
even
an
embarrassing
inconvenience
.
There
are
more
than
one
hundred
million
Muslims
in
India
.
A
time
bomb
is
ticking
in
our
ancient
land
.
All
this
to
say
that
it
is
a
myth
that
the
free
market
breaks
down
national
barriers
.
The
free
market
does
not
threaten
national
sovereignty
,
it
undermines
democracy
.
As
the
disparity
between
the
rich
and
the
poor
grows
,
the
fight
to
corner
resources
is
intensifying
.
To
push
through
their
"
sweetheart
deals
,
"
to
corporatise
the
crops
we
grow
,
the
water
we
drink
,
the
air
we
breathe
,
and
the
dreams
we
dream
,
corporate
globalization
needs
an
international
confederation
of
loyal
,
corrupt
,
authoritarian
governments
in
poorer
countries
to
push
through
unpopular
reforms
and
quell
the
mutinies
.
Corporate
Globalization
-
or
shall
we
call
it
by
its
name
:
Imperialism
-
needs
a
press
that
pretends
to
be
free
.
It
needs
courts
that
pretend
to
dispense
justice
.
Meanwhile
,
the
countries
of
the
North
harden
their
borders
and
stockpile
-
weapons
of
mass
destruction
.
After
all
they
have
to
make
sure
that
its
only
money
,
goods
,
patents
and
services
that
are
globalized
.
Not
the
free
movement
of
people
.
Not
a
respect
for
human
rights
.
Not
international
treaties
on
racial
discrimination
or
chemical
and
nuclear
weapons
or
greenhouse
gas
emissions
or
climate
change
,
or
-
god
forbid
-
justice
.
So
this
-
all
this
-
is
"
empire
.
"
This
loyal
confederation
,
this
obscene
accumulation
of
power
,
this
greatly
increased
distance
between
those
who
make
the
decisions
and
those
who
have
to
suffer
them
.
Our
fight
,
our
goal
,
our
vision
of
Another
World
must
be
to
eliminate
that
distance
.
So
how
do
we
resist
"
Empire
"
?
The
good
news
is
that
were
not
doing
too
badly
.
There
have
been
major
victories
.
Here
in
Latin
America
you
have
had
so
many
-
in
Bolivia
,
you
have
Cochabamba
;
in
Peru
,
there
was
the
uprising
in
Arequipa
;
in
Venezuela
,
President
Hugo
Chavez
is
holding
on
,
despite
the
U
.
S
.
governments
best
efforts
.
And
the
worlds
gaze
is
on
the
people
of
Argentina
,
who
are
trying
to
refashion
a
country
from
the
ashes
of
the
havoc
wrought
by
the
IMF
.
In
India
the
movement
against
corporate
globalization
is
gathering
momentum
and
is
poised
to
become
the
only
real
political
force
to
counter
religious
fascism
.
As
for
corporate
globalization
s
glittering
ambassadors
-
Enron
,
Bechtel
,
WorldCom
,
Arthur
Anderson
-
where
were
they
last
year
,
and
where
are
they
now
?
And
of
course
here
in
Brazil
we
must
ask
...
who
was
the
president
last
year
,
and
who
is
it
now
?
Still
...
many
of
us
have
dark
moments
of
hopelessness
and
despair
.
We
know
that
under
the
spreading
canopy
of
the
War
Against
Terrorism
,
the
men
in
suits
are
hard
at
work
.
While
bombs
rain
down
on
us
,
and
cruise
missiles
skid
across
the
skies
,
we
know
that
contracts
are
being
signed
,
patents
are
being
registered
,
oil
pipelines
are
being
laid
,
natural
resources
are
being
plundered
,
water
is
being
privatized
,
and
George
Bush
is
planning
to
go
to
war
against
Iraq
.
If
we
look
at
this
conflict
as
a
straightforward
eyeball
-
to
-
eyeball
confrontation
between
"
Empire
"
and
those
of
us
who
are
resisting
it
,
it
might
seem
that
we
are
losing
.
But
there
is
another
way
of
looking
at
it
.
We
,
all
of
us
gathered
here
,
have
,
each
in
our
own
way
,
laid
siege
to
"
Empire
.
"
We
may
not
have
stopped
it
in
its
tracks
-
yet
-
but
we
have
tripped
it
down
.
We
have
made
it
drop
its
mask
.
We
have
forced
it
into
the
open
.
It
now
stands
before
us
on
the
worlds
stage
in
all
its
brutish
,
iniquitous
nakedness
.
Empire
may
well
go
to
war
,
but
its
out
in
the
open
now
-
too
ugly
to
behold
its
own
reflection
.
Too
ugly
even
to
rally
its
own
people
.
It
wont
be
long
before
the
majority
of
American
people
become
our
allies
.
Only
a
few
days
ago
in
Washington
,
a
quarter
of
a
million
people
marched
against
the
war
on
Iraq
.
Each
month
,
the
protest
is
gathering
momentum
.
Before
September
11
,
2001
America
had
a
secret
history
.
Secret
especially
from
its
own
people
.
But
now
Americas
secrets
are
history
,
and
its
history
is
public
knowledge
.
Its
street
talk
.
Today
,
we
know
that
every
argument
that
is
being
used
to
escalate
the
war
against
Iraq
is
a
lie
.
The
most
ludicrous
of
them
being
the
U
.
S
.
governments
deep
commitment
to
bring
democracy
to
Iraq
.
Killing
people
to
save
them
from
dictatorship
or
ideological
corruption
is
,
of
course
,
an
old
U
.
S
.
government
sport
.
Here
in
Latin
America
,
you
know
that
better
than
most
.
Nobody
doubts
that
Saddam
Hussein
is
a
ruthless
dictator
,
a
murderer
(
whose
worst
excesses
were
supported
by
the
governments
of
the
United
States
and
Great
Britain
)
.
Theres
no
doubt
that
Iraqis
would
be
better
off
without
him
.
But
,
then
,
the
whole
world
would
be
better
off
without
a
certain
Mr
.
Bush
.
In
fact
,
he
is
far
more
dangerous
than
Saddam
Hussein
.
So
,
should
we
bomb
Bush
out
of
the
White
House
?
Its
more
than
clear
that
Bush
is
determined
to
go
to
war
against
Iraq
,
regardless
of
the
facts
and
regardless
of
international
public
opinion
.
In
its
recruitment
drive
for
allies
,
the
United
States
is
prepared
to
invent
facts
.
The
charade
with
weapons
inspectors
is
the
U
.
S
.
governments
offensive
,
insulting
concession
to
some
twisted
form
of
international
etiquette
.
Its
like
leaving
the
"
doggie
door
"
open
for
last
minute
"
allies
"
or
maybe
the
United
Nations
to
crawl
through
.
But
for
all
intents
and
purposes
,
the
New
War
against
Iraq
has
begun
.
What
can
we
do
?
We
can
hone
our
memory
,
we
can
learn
from
our
history
.
We
can
continue
to
build
public
opinion
until
it
becomes
a
deafening
roar
.
We
can
turn
the
war
on
Iraq
into
a
fishbowl
of
the
U
.
S
.
governments
excesses
.
We
can
expose
George
Bush
and
Tony
Blair
-
and
their
allies
-
for
the
cowardly
baby
killers
,
water
poisoners
,
and
pusillanimous
long
-
distance
bombers
that
they
are
.
We
can
re
-
invent
civil
disobedience
in
a
million
different
ways
.
In
other
words
,
we
can
come
up
with
a
million
ways
of
becoming
a
collective
pain
in
the
ass
.
When
George
Bush
says
,
"
youre
either
with
us
,
or
you
are
with
the
terrorists
,
"
we
can
say
"
No
thank
you
.
"
We
can
let
him
know
that
the
people
of
the
world
do
not
need
to
choose
between
a
Malevolent
Mickey
Mouse
and
the
Mad
Mullahs
.
Our
strategy
should
be
not
only
to
confront
empire
,
but
to
lay
siege
to
it
.
To
deprive
it
of
oxygen
.
To
shame
it
.
To
mock
it
.
With
our
art
,
our
music
,
our
literature
,
our
stubbornness
,
our
joy
,
our
brilliance
,
our
sheer
-
relentlessness
-
and
our
ability
to
tell
our
own
stories
.
Stories
that
are
different
from
the
ones
were
being
brainwashed
to
believe
.
The
corporate
revolution
will
collapse
if
we
refuse
to
buy
what
they
are
selling
their
ideas
,
their
version
of
history
,
their
wars
,
their
weapons
,
their
notion
of
inevitability
.
Remember
this
:
We
be
many
and
they
be
few
.
They
need
us
more
than
we
need
With
one
foot
in
the
Nuclear
Club
and
a
middle
class
of
300
million
of
people
who
modernise
themselves
each
day
,
the
country
will
be
the
third
largest
economy
by
2040
.
By
Florencia
Costa
:
Special
envoy
to
Hyderabad
(
India
)
The
popular
wisdom
says
that
money
attracts
money
–
in
India
’
s
case
,
it
attracts
money
and
much
more
.
That
’
s
why
the
eyes
of
the
world
are
looking
for
this
country
,
the
second
most
growing
one
of
the
globe
,
only
behind
China
.
India
has
been
keeping
for
25
years
the
admirable
yearly
average
of
6
%
-
growth
–
in
2005
,
it
reached
8
%
.
And
if
it
is
being
cherished
for
so
long
as
an
emerging
economic
power
,
India
is
now
being
treated
as
a
skyrocketing
giant
also
in
the
sandy
lands
of
geopolitics
.
The
US
has
just
given
to
India
a
new
status
in
the
global
chess
:
they
offered
India
the
key
to
enrol
in
the
exclusive
atomic
club
,
whose
partners
are
UK
,
Russia
,
France
and
China
–
besides
US
,
of
course
.
These
nations
are
the
only
recognised
as
“
genuine
”
holders
of
nuclear
weapons
.
If
India
enrols
in
this
privileged
group
(
the
agreement
must
be
submitted
by
the
US
Congress
)
,
India
will
be
considered
the
sixth
nuclear
power
,
eligible
to
have
access
to
the
civilian
nuclear
technology
of
the
US
.
It
would
be
a
golden
opportunity
for
this
country
with
more
than
1
billion
inhabitants
and
the
sixth
highest
energy
consumption
of
the
globe
.
The
Indian
Prime
-
Minister
Manmohan
Singh
is
a
brilliant
economist
with
PhD
in
Oxford
,
and
one
of
the
responsible
for
the
economic
opening
of
the
country
during
the
1990
’
s
,
when
he
was
the
Minister
of
Finance
.
He
already
warned
:
the
growth
of
his
country
should
continue
steady
and
firm
,
as
the
“
steps
of
the
elephants
”
.
In
the
end
of
last
year
,
Singh
forecasted
that
India
would
continue
growing
at
an
average
yearly
rate
from
7
.
5
%
to
8
%
till
2008
.
From
this
point
,
in
his
predictions
,
the
most
challenging
prediction
of
reaching
the
10
%
-
level
.
In
the
beginning
of
last
March
,
George
W
.
Bush
visited
New
Delhi
,
and
this
was
the
third
visit
of
an
US
President
in
a
28
-
year
-
period
.
Bush
agreed
with
the
Indian
Prime
Minister
an
historical
agreement
that
may
finish
with
the
Indian
nuclear
isolation
.
This
hand
given
by
Bush
shows
how
much
the
US
is
betting
high
with
this
strategic
partnership
with
the
Indian
emerging
power
.
As
per
the
agreement
signed
with
the
Yankees
,
India
permits
the
inspection
of
14
out
of
their
22
nuclear
reactors
.
And
,
before
Bush
,
Jacques
Chirac
signed
a
similar
agreement
with
them
.
Both
Bush
and
Chirac
praises
India
,
who
left
being
a
nuclear
plague
to
become
a
“
responsible
power
”
.
The
agreement
is
polemical
,
as
the
country
is
not
a
signatory
of
the
TNP
.
For
decades
,
India
has
been
developing
its
own
nuclear
programme
,
including
for
military
purposes
,
and
the
critics
of
Bush
’
s
agreement
say
that
he
opened
a
door
that
will
make
more
difficult
the
attempts
to
stop
the
ambitions
of
countries
like
Pakistan
,
North
Korea
and
Iran
.
Putting
geopolitical
questions
apart
,
with
its
economy
growing
more
and
more
,
India
has
an
endless
thirsty
for
energy
sources
.
Nowadays
,
the
country
is
the
emerging
star
of
the
BRIC
–
Brazil
,
Russia
,
India
and
China
.
The
acronym
became
famous
with
the
Goldman
Sachs
Report
about
the
growth
perspectives
of
these
emerging
economies
.
India
should
be
the
third
biggest
economy
of
the
world
till
2040
and
investors
from
everywhere
are
with
their
eyes
on
the
Indian
immense
consumer
market
–
the
Indian
middle
class
totals
300
million
inhabitants
(
the
Brazilian
population
is
of
180
million
approximately
)
.
It
is
a
social
extract
that
is
modernising
each
and
every
year
,
eager
for
new
products
and
that
is
greater
than
the
Brazilian
population
in
120
million
people
–
a
market
that
consumes
US
$
200
bn
annually
in
durable
goods
.
The
power
of
India
goes
much
farther
than
the
financial
values
:
it
is
also
in
their
famous
brains
.
The
country
has
been
investing
for
years
in
higher
education
,
it
has
one
of
the
best
technologic
institutes
of
the
world
and
graduates
3
million
people
a
year
,
700
thousand
post
-
graduates
and
1500
PhDs
.
Since
the
1990
’
s
,
the
country
is
becoming
the
nest
of
IT
Enterprises
and
service
companies
like
Call
Centres
.
It
also
became
famous
for
the
development
of
biotechnology
&
pharmaceutical
companies
.
The
growth
of
the
middle
class
sparked
the
expansion
of
markets
like
telephony
,
automotive
and
processed
food
.
That
’
s
why
Bush
availed
his
visit
as
maximum
as
he
could
.
Besides
the
nuclear
pact
,
he
negotiated
economic
agreements
in
views
of
doubling
the
commercial
exchange
between
both
countries
till
2010
.
Doubling
means
reaching
US
$
30
billion
...
ISTOE
Weekly
News
Magazine
,
No
.
1907
,
10
.
5
.
2006
,
pages
106
~
108
"
The
Latin
American
Section
of
ANS
has
been
able
to
gather
,
in
its
membership
,
an
important
portion
of
the
professional
and
entrepreneurial
nuclear
community
of
Latin
America
.
This
feature
has
attracted
to
the
Section
firms
and
individuals
from
other
regions
of
the
world
who
share
common
interests
and
maintain
business
activities
in
Latin
America
.
In
this
way
,
the
Section
has
the
means
to
serve
as
a
forum
of
information
exchange
and
individual
relationship
in
a
broad
array
of
nuclear
activities
within
a
very
large
geographical
area
.
This
has
been
the
result
of
an
effort
of
almost
a
quarter
of
a
century
,
which
has
allowed
a
continuous
expansion
of
the
LAS
/
ANS
influence
,
not
only
within
the
Latin
American
countries
,
but
also
around
the
world
through
its
active
promotion
of
,
and
participation
in
international
organizations
like
the
INSC
(
International
Nuclear
Societies
Council
)
and
the
PNC
(
Pacific
Nuclear
Council
)
.
"
Sérgio
de
Salvo
Brito
(
)
1977
-
1978
José
Ribeiro
da
Costa
(
)
1978
-
1979
Antonio
E
.
F
.
Müller
1979
-
1981
Jorge
Oscar
Cosentino
(
)
1982
-
1983
Witold
P
.
S
.
Lepecki
1983
-
1984
LAS
,
along
its
more
than
one
-
quarter
century
of
existence
,
fulfilled
the
following
roles
,
which
,
in
my
opinion
,
are
unique
:
By
being
the
only
regional
organization
of
its
kind
,
it
integrated
the
nuclear
communities
of
all
the
countries
in
the
region
;
By
choosing
to
be
a
Section
of
the
American
Nuclear
Society
,
rather
than
an
autonomous
Society
,
it
integrated
both
the
Latin
American
and
North
American
nuclear
technical
communities
,
contributing
to
mutual
understanding
,
not
only
at
the
technical
level
,
but
also
in
matters
that
are
politically
delicate
;
By
achieving
,
along
the
years
,
to
represent
Latin
America
with
equal
weight
to
other
regions
of
the
world
in
international
organizations
(
e
.
g
.
,
INSC
)
,
it
contributed
,
in
an
essential
way
,
to
project
its
nuclear
technical
community
in
the
wider
world
-
wide
scene
.
Arthur
Eduardo
Gasparian
(
)
1984
-
1985
Juan
Eibenschutz
1985
-
1986
Ronaldo
A
.
C
.
Fabrício
1986
-
1987
Miguel
Medina
Vaillard
1987
-
1988
Márcio
Costa
1988
-
1989
Oscar
Armando
Quihillalt
(
)
1989
-
1990
Evaldo
Césari
de
Oliveira
1990
-
1991
Rafael
Fernández
de
la
Garza
1991
-
1992
Cláudio
B
.
M
.
Campos
1992
-
1993
Professional
societies
which
have
an
international
approach
are
one
of
the
best
ways
to
amplify
the
integration
of
people
and
organizations
which
have
similar
interests
.
Under
this
perspective
I
must
say
that
I
was
very
pleased
to
receive
the
invitation
to
join
LAS
in
middle
80
'
s
.
Having
the
opportunity
to
work
together
with
my
colleagues
in
LAS
I
was
firstly
involved
in
the
task
of
integration
of
technical
standards
and
after
some
years
becoming
LAS
'
president
in
1992
.
I
must
say
that
it
was
a
very
enriching
experience
where
I
learned
a
lot
and
it
helped
me
to
improve
my
understanding
and
contacts
in
the
globalization
environment
we
are
facing
today
in
our
personnal
and
professional
lives
.
LAS
is
certainly
an
organization
I
will
always
be
proud
to
be
a
member
.
Julio
A
.
Recalde
1993
-
1994
Which
are
the
three
sentences
that
provide
the
best
description
of
the
LAS
/
ANS
'
spirit
,
achievements
and
contribution
to
the
community
?
·
An
organization
that
has
evolved
from
"
representing
the
interests
of
the
professionals
in
the
nuclear
arena
"
to
"
having
reached
a
deserved
prestige
by
representing
and
safeguarding
the
expectations
of
the
Latin
American
community
in
as
far
as
nuclear
issues
are
concerned
"
.
·
An
organization
that
,
since
its
foundation
,
has
always
fostered
and
followed
the
path
of
a
well
-
understood
Latin
American
globalization
.
·
A
fourth
of
a
century
of
ceaseless
and
productive
work
in
the
hands
of
a
group
of
people
who
have
enriched
each
other
within
the
framework
of
an
agreeable
environment
of
professional
friendliness
.
And
,
finally
,
as
far
as
I
am
concerned
,
"
an
organization
of
which
I
will
always
be
proud
to
be
a
member
"
.
Pedro
J
.
Diniz
de
Figueiredo
1994
-
1995
I
think
that
the
Latin
America
should
have
others
organisations
in
other
fields
of
activities
,
like
the
Latin
American
Section
of
ANS
.
It
is
a
very
privilegiated
and
unique
forum
for
the
nuclear
business
professionals
.
Several
common
problems
and
expectations
were
discussed
and
are
frenquently
discussed
among
the
latin
americans
engineers
and
professionals
.
No
other
forum
is
available
for
such
a
discussion
and
interaction
.
During
the
period
that
I
was
president
of
LAS
,
I
enphasized
the
important
of
developing
the
proper
standard
and
regulations
appropriated
to
every
region
.
I
still
continue
believing
that
commom
regulations
for
the
latin
americans
in
the
nuclear
business
would
be
a
very
strong
point
of
common
development
.
This
policy
would
be
of
beneffit
if
others
organisations
in
other
fields
of
activities
had
the
same
common
goal
as
the
LAS
.
The
Latin
American
Section
of
the
ANS
set
a
very
good
example
how
latin
americans
could
work
together
in
diferent
areas
of
interest
in
benefitt
of
the
whole
Latin
America
.
Carlos
Vélez
Ocón
1995
-
1996
Ayrton
J
.
Caubit
da
Silva
1996
-
1997
Oscar
José
Quihillalt
(
)
1998
-
1999
Olga
C
.
R
.
L
.
Simbalista
1998
-
1999
In
my
opinion
,
the
main
role
of
the
Latin
American
Section
of
the
American
Nuclear
Society
-
LAS
is
to
act
as
an
integrating
vehicle
,
non
-
governmental
,
of
nuclear
activities
in
the
Americas
.
Since
July
1998
,
LAS
contributed
to
get
together
local
nuclear
societies
of
Argentina
(
Asociación
Argentina
de
Tecnologia
Nuclear
-
AATN
)
,
Brazil
(
Associação
Brasileira
de
Energia
Nuclear
-
ABEN
)
,
Mexico
(
Sociedade
Nuclear
Mexicana
-
SNM
)
,
Canada
(
Canadian
Nuclear
Society
-
CNS
)
as
well
as
of
the
U
.
S
.
(
American
Nuclear
Society
-
ANS
)
through
meetings
sponsored
by
LAS
(
Buenos
Aires
Nuclear
Symposium
and
Washington
Meeting
of
the
Americas
)
.
This
integration
was
reinforced
,
in
Acapulco
,
in
July
1999
,
during
the
International
Joint
Meeting
on
the
Role
of
Nuclear
Power
to
Mitigate
Climate
Change
,
co
-
sponsored
by
SNM
,
LAS
,
Federación
Latino
Americana
de
Sociedades
de
Protección
Radiológica
and
Sociedad
Mexicana
de
Seguridad
Radiológica
.
José
Francisco
Torres
Ramírez
1999
-
2000
Looking
at
the
21st
century
,
Latin
America
faces
the
challenges
that
the
new
millennium
presents
and
these
challenges
can
take
on
only
with
a
change
in
mentality
and
with
advanced
technologies
.
Therefore
the
LATIN
AMERICAN
SECTION
OF
THE
AMERICAN
NUCLEAR
SOCIETY
is
focused
to
innovate
,
develop
and
communicate
a
quality
culture
,
safety
and
environmental
protection
based
on
the
benefits
that
the
use
of
Nuclear
Energy
provides
to
different
areas
with
peaceful
purposes
,
all
with
Latin
American
presence
and
participation
.
Promote
extensive
exchange
of
experiences
in
coordination
with
public
and
private
organizations
inside
the
nuclear
community
through
the
following
activities
:
.
Spreading
the
technological
advances
.
.
Participate
in
technological
research
.
.
Attending
problem
resolutions
and
consulting
nuclear
engineering
related
issues
.
.
Foster
mutual
cooperation
and
work
closer
with
in
the
nuclear
community
.
.
Organize
meetings
and
congresses
.
.
Continue
promotional
effort
to
increase
number
of
collaborators
.
.
Promote
use
of
nuclear
energy
.
Antonio
Carlos
de
O
.
Barroso
2000
-
2001
Roberto
Omar
Cirimello
2001
-
2002
LAS
-
ANS
is
the
result
of
a
pioneering
effort
of
several
professionals
and
executives
of
nuclear
organizations
of
the
region
.
The
continuity
over
more
than
25
years
show
that
pursuing
free
and
fair
cooperation
among
peoples
and
countries
gave
an
encouraging
result
of
diffusion
of
nuclear
activities
.
During
the
time
when
nuclear
energy
in
our
region
reached
low
ebb
periods
LAS
-
ANS
contributed
to
keep
closely
linked
the
nuclear
communities
of
our
countries
and
encouraged
professionals
and
managers
to
pursue
in
their
efforts
to
maintain
the
nuclear
option
open
.
Nowadays
,
due
to
the
better
prospect
foreseen
for
nuclear
energy
,
the
role
of
LAS
-
ANS
will
be
to
strengthen
the
scope
of
its
activity
in
the
region
and
to
enlarge
the
participation
of
other
countries
to
become
active
partners
in
this
endeavor
.
To
be
a
part
of
LAS
is
a
professional
achievement
.
Fernando
S
.
Henning
2002
-
2003
Roberto
Hojman
2003
-
2004
Zieli
Dutra
Thomé
Filho
2004
-
2005
Juan
Luis
François
2005
-
2006
We
are
living
exciting
days
,
more
than
ever
the
nuclear
energy
renaissance
is
close
to
a
reality
.
There
are
two
main
drivers
of
this
phenomenon
:
the
climate
change
,
due
to
the
earth
s
global
warming
,
mainly
caused
by
the
emission
of
greenhouse
gases
from
fossil
fuels
combustion
,
and
the
high
international
prices
of
oil
and
gas
.
The
first
is
very
closely
related
to
the
environment
and
the
second
to
the
economics
;
and
both
are
very
important
dimensions
of
the
sustainability
of
an
energy
source
.
The
maturity
of
the
nuclear
industry
,
expressed
in
plant
reliability
(
higher
capacity
factors
)
and
operational
safety
,
is
also
an
important
driver
of
the
new
confidence
in
the
nuclear
industry
.
Recently
we
have
seen
how
Finland
,
a
country
greatly
concerned
about
the
environment
,
after
a
very
detailed
study
,
has
selected
the
nuclear
option
to
increase
the
electric
power
capacity
.
Criteria
such
as
cost
,
reliability
and
environmental
issues
were
taken
into
account
in
their
final
decision
.
In
Latin
America
the
situation
is
similar
to
the
rest
of
the
world
.
Nowadays
the
economics
and
the
environment
are
global
issues
,
which
affect
the
strategic
decisions
of
the
countries
.
In
particular
the
energy
sector
is
a
strategic
one
,
which
strongly
depends
on
these
issues
;
we
are
also
facing
the
high
prices
of
the
fossil
fuels
and
the
climate
change
disturbances
.
Some
other
local
political
decisions
in
Latin
America
,
like
the
nationalization
of
gas
in
Bolivia
,
have
added
a
new
element
into
the
decision
making
process
of
the
energy
policies
in
countries
like
Argentina
and
Brazil
.
This
new
element
,
related
to
the
security
of
the
energy
source
supply
,
is
becoming
one
of
the
key
issues
in
the
definition
of
the
energy
portfolio
in
the
countries
.
Nuclear
energy
has
demonstrated
,
over
the
years
that
it
is
a
reliable
source
of
energy
,
independent
of
the
political
disturbances
around
the
world
.
This
is
why
I
am
convinced
that
once
more
,
the
role
of
the
LAS
-
ANS
is
very
important
at
this
moment
,
such
as
it
has
been
over
thirty
one
years
of
existence
,
promoting
the
deployment
of
nuclear
energy
and
gathering
the
nuclear
community
of
Latin
America
.
Nuclear
energy
must
play
a
new
and
very
important
role
in
the
short
term
in
Latin
America
,
vis
a
vis
the
energy
needs
and
the
economical
and
environmental
concerns
.
We
as
Latin
Americans
,
facing
similar
technical
,
social
and
political
issues
,
can
share
experiences
and
knowledge
through
LAS
-
ANS
in
order
to
work
for
the
renaissance
of
nuclear
energy
in
our
countries
.
Mother
Nature
(
the
Ultimate
Chemist
)
:
South
America
holds
some
of
the
richest
rain
forests
in
the
world
where
Nature
,
through
the
abundance
of
the
essentials
of
life
has
produced
a
rich
spectrum
of
biological
molecules
.
The
early
inhabitants
of
these
regions
,
over
thousands
of
years
,
have
,
through
experimentation
,
identified
plants
and
animals
that
contain
components
that
they
have
found
to
be
beneficial
for
their
health
or
so
toxic
that
they
can
be
used
as
a
weapon
.
Do
any
of
you
know
any
examples
of
drugs
or
toxins
that
have
evolved
to
commercial
products
that
have
had
their
origin
from
the
experience
of
pre
-
modern
history
South
Americans
?
While
the
knowledge
of
these
important
biological
compounds
was
passed
on
through
generations
from
stories
and
the
practice
of
medicine
by
learned
members
of
these
native
communities
,
until
recently
,
these
stories
and
"
home
remedies
"
were
not
recognized
by
the
science
community
as
having
much
validity
.
Long
before
penicillin
was
discovered
,
the
Native
people
knew
that
a
bad
wound
would
heal
more
quickly
if
moldy
bread
were
layered
over
the
wound
.
Although
we
have
reached
a
high
level
of
sophistication
in
synthesizing
biological
compounds
,
Nature
,
through
the
experience
of
millions
of
years
,
has
developed
synthesis
pathways
that
are
marvels
in
their
complexity
and
ingenuity
.
Consequently
,
many
scientists
are
not
only
isolating
and
identifying
the
active
ingredients
of
a
plant
but
also
elucidating
the
pathways
that
Nature
uses
to
produce
that
species
.
The
countries
of
South
America
have
been
a
rich
natural
laboratory
for
these
activities
.
Poisonous
South
American
tree
frogs
and
mass
spectrometry
When
a
plant
or
animal
is
identified
as
having
pan
of
its
chemical
make
-
up
,
a
species
that
has
important
physiological
properties
,
that
species
is
first
isolated
and
purified
.
The
3
-
dimensional
chemical
structure
is
elucidated
utilizing
a
variety
of
spectroscopic
tools
.
The
most
information
rich
of
these
methods
are
NMR
,
IR
,
and
x
-
ray
diffraction
of
pieces
of
the
molecule
and
the
whole
molecule
.
A
structure
is
proposed
that
fits
all
of
this
information
and
a
molecular
mass
determination
is
made
that
is
a
direct
measure
of
the
inventory
of
the
atoms
comprising
the
molecule
.
If
the
measured
mass
does
not
fit
the
proposed
structure
,
them
something
is
wrong
with
the
proposed
structure
and
it
must
be
modified
.
The
molecular
mass
determination
is
made
by
converting
molecules
of
the
species
into
gas
phase
molecular
ions
and
the
mass
is
measured
by
the
interaction
of
these
ions
with
magnetic
or
electric
fields
or
a
combination
of
these
.
The
specific
example
that
illustrates
this
scenario
is
given
by
the
Panamanian
tree
frog
whose
skin
contains
a
highly
toxic
molecule
called
tetrodotoxin
.
It
'
s
proposed
structure
based
on
spectroscopic
evidence
is
given
below
:
Figure
1
.
Proposed
Structure
of
Tetrodotoxin
.
This
molecule
interferes
with
the
electrical
circuitry
of
the
heart
and
induces
cardiac
arrest
.
It
is
used
in
heart
research
to
induced
heart
attacks
in
laboratory
animals
and
to
study
the
physiological
action
of
this
event
.
Attempts
to
obtain
the
molecular
mass
of
this
molecule
by
mass
spectrometry
in
the
early
1970
'
s
failed
because
no
gas
phase
molecular
ions
could
be
produced
in
the
mass
spectrometer
.
In
fact
,
a
large
fraction
of
Nature
'
s
biomolecules
could
not
be
studied
by
mass
spectrometry
in
that
era
because
of
this
fundamental
problem
.
The
reason
for
this
can
be
understood
if
the
tetrodotoxin
structure
is
examined
in
more
detail
.
The
highly
polar
groups
on
the
structure
result
in
a
very
strong
dipole
/
dipole
interaction
between
neighboring
molecules
in
a
sample
of
tetrodotoxin
which
means
that
it
is
difficult
to
pull
them
apart
by
thermal
agitation
.
When
the
sample
is
heated
to
increase
the
intermolecular
excitation
,
the
thermal
energy
excites
internal
vibrations
of
the
molecule
and
it
dissociates
.
This
process
is
depicted
below
.
Figure
2
.
Thermal
excitation
of
a
tetrodotoxin
matrix
leading
to
decomposition
.
A
Chance
Observation
in
a
Nuclear
Physics
Study
Leads
to
a
Solution
to
the
Problem
In
1972
,
our
group
at
Texas
A
&
M
University
was
studying
the
emission
of
radioactive
recoil
ions
from
surfaces
using
time
-
of
-
flight
mass
spectrometry
.
In
addition
to
the
expected
ions
,
molecular
ions
of
impurities
on
the
surface
also
appeared
in
the
mass
spectrum
which
were
postulated
to
be
due
to
the
ionization
of
molecules
on
the
surface
of
the
sample
by
the
nuclear
radiation
.
To
test
this
hypothesis
,
a
252
Cf
-
source
was
placed
behind
the
sample
and
fission
fragments
from
the
spontaneous
of
this
nuclide
irradiated
the
sample
.
Molecular
ions
of
surface
molecules
were
indeed
produced
in
high
abundance
and
detected
in
the
mass
spectrum
verifying
the
origin
of
the
molecular
ions
in
the
nuclear
physics
experiment
.
Key
individuals
participating
in
this
study
in
1972
in
our
lab
are
participating
in
the
Desorption
'
98
meeting
this
week
.
They
are
Karl
Wien
and
Hartmut
Jungclas
from
Germany
.
This
phenomenon
was
so
unexpected
and
interesting
that
it
became
the
topic
of
our
future
studies
and
the
nuclear
physics
interests
gradually
dwindled
to
obscurity
.
We
began
to
coat
the
surface
with
a
variety
of
different
materials
including
those
with
biological
significance
and
in
all
cases
,
we
obtained
molecular
ions
of
whatever
was
put
on
the
surface
.
My
nuclear
physics
colleagues
who
were
working
on
problems
in
the
same
nuclear
physics
field
also
became
interested
in
this
new
adventure
,
and
since
they
all
had
the
same
nuclear
physics
technology
were
able
to
do
the
same
thing
in
their
lab
.
Many
of
these
individuals
,
(
nuclear
physicists
turned
mass
spectroscopists
)
are
also
participating
in
this
week
'
s
activities
and
have
made
major
contributions
to
the
field
over
the
past
2
decades
.
In
addition
to
Wien
and
Jungclas
,
they
include
Yvon
Le
Beyec
,
Bo
Sundqvist
,
Ken
Standing
,
Helmut
Voit
,
and
Brian
Chait
.
Back
to
the
Poisonous
Frog
and
the
Molecular
Decomposition
Problem
In
1973
-
4
,
when
our
studies
on
the
use
of
fission
fragments
of
252
Cf
to
generate
mass
spectra
was
beginning
to
evolve
,
one
of
the
students
in
my
group
began
his
graduate
studies
at
Stanford
University
working
for
Harry
Mosher
,
a
renowned
natural
products
chemist
.
Professor
Mosher
hid
been
studying
the
tetrodotoxin
structure
problem
for
several
years
and
proposed
the
structure
shown
above
.
He
was
not
able
to
verify
this
structure
by
MW
determination
because
of
the
involatility
/
decomposition
problem
.
He
had
tried
for
several
years
using
every
new
mass
spectrometric
method
that
had
evolved
but
with
no
success
.
At
the
urging
of
his
new
student
,
he
sent
us
a
sample
to
run
and
we
got
a
good
result
.
At
that
time
,
we
didn
'
t
know
it
was
a
tough
problem
and
we
also
didn
'
t
know
about
the
problem
mass
spectrometry
was
having
with
involatile
biomolecules
.
The
spectrum
we
got
by
shooting
fission
fragments
through
a
sample
of
this
toxin
is
shown
below
.
Figure
3
.
First
Mass
Spectrum
of
tetrodotoxin
obtained
by
PDMS
Naming
the
Method
Professor
Mosher
was
very
excited
about
this
result
.
He
suggested
that
we
forget
about
this
nuclear
physics
stuff
and
really
develop
the
method
into
a
technology
for
natural
product
studies
.
He
also
insisted
that
we
come
up
with
a
name
for
it
,
something
organic
chemists
could
pronounce
and
remember
and
,
after
several
attempts
,
came
up
with
252
Cf
PDMS
or
PDMS
(
Plasma
Desorption
Mass
Spectrometry
)
.
So
how
do
Fission
Fragments
solve
the
Problem
?
A
fission
fragment
is
a
high
energy
,
highly
-
charged
ion
that
is
a
highly
destructive
species
.
The
surprise
was
that
a
component
of
its
interaction
with
solids
is
gentle
,
resulting
in
the
desorption
and
ionization
of
fragile
molecules
without
decomposing
them
.
Later
studies
showed
that
the
combination
of
high
energy
density
and
short
-
excitation
time
was
they
key
feature
of
the
interaction
that
makes
PDMS
work
and
that
even
very
large
biomolecules
can
survive
the
hostile
environment
of
the
fission
track
and
become
intact
gas
phase
molecular
ions
.
PDMS
Research
,
1974
-
1984
During
this
era
,
our
laboratory
at
Texas
A
&
M
was
flooded
with
requests
to
"
run
samples
"
,
primarily
to
determine
the
MW
of
molecules
of
biological
importance
.
For
the
most
part
,
these
were
pharmaceuticals
being
developed
by
drug
companies
and
the
MW
determination
was
a
requirement
for
acceptance
as
a
drug
for
the
public
.
Many
of
these
compounds
were
known
only
by
a
code
.
We
got
some
nice
looking
spectra
but
had
no
idea
what
it
all
meant
.
We
must
have
been
quite
successful
because
the
sample
came
flooding
in
.
This
was
a
confusing
time
for
us
because
we
were
still
more
nuclear
scientist
than
mass
spectroscopist
,
and
in
fact
,
we
knew
very
little
about
the
field
.
We
now
know
that
many
of
the
samples
we
studied
have
become
important
drugs
currently
in
use
.
These
include
vancomycin
,
bleomycin
,
amphotericin
,
and
thiostreptin
.
Although
we
were
successfull
with
these
molecules
,
the
mass
spectrometry
community
did
not
embrace
our
endeavors
for
several
reasons
:
fear
of
radioactivity
,
use
of
time
-
of
-
flight
and
not
a
magnet
or
quadrupole
,
low
mass
resolution
,
and
you
had
to
wait
for
more
than
a
minute
to
obtain
the
mass
spectrum
.
It
was
a
time
when
editors
of
journals
were
more
sympathetic
to
our
manuscripts
than
reviewers
.
Accelerator
Studies
,
1976
-
present
During
the
time
when
we
were
actively
involved
in
"
running
samples
"
,
my
nuclear
physics
colleagues
,
who
,
like
most
physicists
,
generally
distain
chemistry
,
began
to
tackle
the
problem
of
mechanism
of
PDMS
using
their
nuclear
accelerators
.
It
was
from
these
experiments
,
that
the
properties
of
the
incident
ion
were
elucidated
and
the
interaction
of
high
energy
ions
with
solids
as
a
field
in
its
own
began
to
emerge
.
These
activities
were
initiated
and
sustained
by
Voit
at
Erlangen
,
Sundqvist
at
Uppsala
,
Le
Beyec
at
Orsay
,
Wien
at
Darmstadt
,
da
Silveira
at
Rio
and
Tombrello
at
Caltech
.
Intense
and
enduring
friendships
with
these
groups
for
the
past
25
years
have
been
one
of
the
richest
components
of
my
professional
and
private
life
.
We
have
maintained
this
closeness
through
the
series
of
Desorption
'
xx
meetings
that
have
taken
place
in
wonderful
and
interesting
sites
that
include
Brazil
as
a
two
-
time
favorite
of
this
group
.
Over
the
years
,
the
group
has
expanded
as
the
field
has
grown
and
developed
new
roots
and
branches
.
It
is
this
feature
that
I
wish
to
address
next
.
Secondary
Ion
Mass
Spectrometry
(
SIMS
)
This
method
was
well
established
before
PDMS
came
along
.
Low
energy
ions
bombard
the
surface
of
a
sample
producing
gas
phase
ions
of
the
matrix
.
The
method
was
used
extensively
for
characterizing
the
surfaces
of
inorganic
species
before
1974
and
continues
today
.
The
mechanism
involves
collisions
of
the
incident
ion
with
surface
atoms
that
are
ejected
.
Molecular
ions
were
also
present
in
the
mass
spectrum
which
were
an
"
unwanted
background
"
.
When
PDMS
was
introduced
,
it
was
realized
that
a
component
of
the
SIMS
process
also
was
similar
to
PDMS
,
the
rapid
deposition
of
energy
,
and
molecular
ions
of
involatile
molecules
could
also
be
desorbed
by
these
low
energy
ions
.
From
1976
to
the
present
,
SIMS
has
been
a
member
of
the
Desorption
'
xx
family
,
led
by
Benninghoven
at
Munster
and
Standing
in
Winnipeg
.
A
friendly
rivalry
emerged
during
this
era
where
a
series
of
papers
were
presented
on
SIMS
catching
up
to
PDMS
in
terms
of
number
of
ions
desorbed
and
the
mass
range
.
In
terms
of
acceptance
by
the
mass
spec
.
community
,
SIMS
had
the
same
problem
as
PDMS
because
it
did
not
use
sophisticated
magnets
and
have
high
mass
resolution
.
This
acceptance
issue
comes
up
in
several
places
here
because
it
was
a
real
dilemma
.
Thousands
of
mass
spec
.
people
were
essentially
ignoring
the
work
of
the
PDMS
/
SIMS
people
despite
the
successes
.
The
Beginning
of
Being
Accepted
The
first
mass
spectrometry
meeting
where
PDMS
results
were
presented
was
in
1976
.
It
was
the
last
paper
of
a
week
-
long
meeting
and
4
people
were
in
the
audience
(
they
were
waiting
for
their
plane
)
.
But
as
it
turned
out
,
they
were
very
important
people
and
each
became
part
of
the
PDMS
family
.
They
were
highly
respected
in
the
mass
spec
.
community
politics
and
3
of
the
4
became
President
of
the
American
Society
for
Mass
Spectrometry
and
the
fourth
is
now
President
of
a
large
mass
spectrometry
company
in
the
US
.
It
was
through
these
individuals
and
their
foresight
and
unselfish
devotion
to
the
good
of
the
field
that
PDMS
began
to
be
a
part
of
this
community
.
To
Frank
Field
,
Hank
Fales
,
Jim
McCloskey
,
and
Ian
Jardine
,
the
Desorption
'
xx
group
can
be
grateful
to
these
bridge
builders
.
For
Frank
Field
and
Victor
Tal
'
Rose
,
their
strong
intellectual
leadership
became
the
base
for
acceptance
by
the
mass
spectrometry
community
.
The
Competition
Heats
Up
,
Laser
Desorption
is
Introduced
It
was
generally
accepted
by
the
mass
spectrometry
community
that
there
must
be
a
better
way
than
PDMS
to
obtain
mass
spectra
of
biomolecules
but
using
the
same
general
idea
.
In
the
late
1970
'
s
,
Meuzzelar
in
Holland
began
to
obtain
impressive
mass
spectra
using
laser
excitation
.
When
I
heard
one
of
his
first
talks
on
his
work
,
I
had
the
feeling
that
the
days
of
the
monopoly
that
PDMS
had
on
the
field
were
numbered
.
Laser
desorption
had
so
much
going
for
it
in
terms
of
control
of
the
excitation
.
The
pulsed
laser
was
a
natural
for
the
TOF
technique
.
However
,
the
promise
did
not
convert
to
reality
in
the
next
few
years
.
One
of
the
Desorption
'
xx
participants
,
Franz
Hillenkamp
,
took
up
the
challenge
of
laser
desorption
at
that
time
and
for
several
meeting
Hillenkamp
kept
us
informed
on
the
progress
of
the
development
of
the
method
.
The
mass
spectrometry
community
and
commercial
mass
spectrometer
makers
patiently
waited
for
something
more
attractive
.
Fast
Atom
Bombardment
(
FAB
)
makes
its
debut
In
the
early
1980
'
s
,
we
were
working
with
Kenneth
Reinhart
,
a
natural
product
chemist
at
Illinois
,
on
a
series
of
potentially
important
antibiotics
derived
from
marine
organisms
.
These
were
tough
molecules
to
analyze
.
In
the
middle
of
the
studies
,
Ken
told
us
about
a
method
he
heard
was
just
developed
in
England
that
was
an
important
breakthrough
for
the
analysis
of
involatile
biomolecules
.
He
was
going
to
England
immediately
with
his
samples
and
would
report
back
.
When
he
returned
,
he
told
the
story
of
a
clandestine
operation
literally
clocked
in
secrecy
where
he
handed
his
samples
to
an
operator
who
then
went
behind
a
curtain
,
prepared
the
samples
and
inserted
them
into
a
mass
spectrometer
.
Out
came
high
quality
spectra
and
the
big
news
was
that
a
"
proper
"
mass
spectrometer
was
used
i
.
e
.
a
magnetic
sector
instrument
.
The
professor
in
charge
was
Michael
Barber
and
the
method
is
known
as
fast
atom
bombardment
.
The
incident
species
is
a
high
energy
neutral
atom
and
the
matrix
is
a
liquid
matrix
.
A
high
yield
of
ions
,
a
steady
current
of
these
ions
is
produced
,
and
it
is
compatible
with
the
technology
currently
in
use
by
the
mass
spectrometry
community
at
that
time
.
High
resolution
,
instant
gratification
in
the
time
required
to
get
the
data
,
important
criteria
for
acceptance
,
was
a
part
of
the
FAB
technique
.
Within
the
next
year
,
I
heard
Mickey
Barber
present
his
method
and
results
at
a
meeting
in
London
,
the
last
talk
of
the
meeting
,
and
I
knew
then
that
PDMS
was
on
its
way
to
become
part
of
the
past
history
of
mass
spectrometry
.
Most
of
the
important
pharmaceutical
problems
could
now
be
solved
by
FAB
and
the
demand
for
PDMS
measurements
was
reduced
to
almost
nothing
.
The
mass
spectrometry
community
embraced
FAB
and
there
was
a
public
impression
that
now
there
was
a
method
far
analyzing
involatile
biomolecules
.
This
perception
was
not
challenged
by
the
Desorption
'
xx
community
(
I
'
m
not
sure
why
;
intellectual
maturity
?
,
unselfish
devotion
to
the
science
and
not
the
publicity
?
,
.....
?
)
and
the
FAB
researchers
chose
not
to
be
a
part
of
the
Desorption
'
xx
community
even
though
the
mechanisms
of
the
process
were
closely
related
.
In
later
years
,
Mickey
and
I
had
several
good
interactions
and
conversations
.
In
the
last
(
I
didn
'
t
know
it
would
be
the
last
)
,
I
got
up
the
courage
to
ask
him
a
question
I
had
pondered
since
I
first
heard
about
FAB
and
the
basis
for
the
question
was
the
lack
of
the
development
of
a
link
between
FAB
and
the
other
desorption
/
ionization
methods
.
My
question
:
"
Mickey
,
did
PDMS
have
any
influence
on
the
development
of
FAB
?
Mickey
:
"
You
damn
right
it
did
!
We
were
so
angry
that
you
were
able
to
run
all
those
samples
on
a
TOF
instrument
that
we
put
one
of
your
spectra
on
the
wall
of
our
lab
as
a
daily
reminder
that
we
must
find
a
way
to
run
these
samples
on
a
proper
mass
spectrometer
.
"
I
cherish
that
moment
.
The
Post
-
FAB
era
and
the
birth
of
MALDI
What
kept
PDMS
going
after
FAB
was
introduced
was
the
ability
to
study
larger
biomolecules
.
Largely
through
the
work
of
the
Uppsala
group
,
the
mass
range
limit
was
pushed
up
to
close
to
40
,
000
for
a
protein
.
But
it
was
hard
work
.
At
the
same
time
,
biotechnology
and
medicine
was
becoming
more
sophisticated
and
the
desire
to
obtain
accurate
and
precise
molecular
weights
of
biopolyimers
was
becoming
more
acute
.
It
was
obvious
from
our
studies
that
there
was
a
limit
to
the
size
of
a
protein
that
could
be
desorbed
by
a
fission
fragment
.
This
was
a
bit
of
disappointment
because
our
own
interests
were
heading
in
a
direction
in
medical
research
where
we
wanted
to
use
PDMS
to
characterize
proteins
involved
in
human
health
and
disease
.
It
was
clear
that
PDMS
was
not
going
to
be
used
in
these
studies
.
In
the
late
1980
'
s
,
at
an
International
Science
meeting
in
Bordeaux
,
Franz
Hillenkamp
gave
a
talk
,
imbedded
deep
in
the
program
on
the
work
he
and
Michael
Karas
were
doing
with
laser
desorption
;
a
breakthrough
and
a
new
acronym
:
MALDI
.
You
will
hear
more
about
this
method
from
Franz
in
the
next
day
or
two
.
This
time
,
my
response
to
his
talk
was
absolute
excitement
!
I
could
see
my
desire
to
have
a
method
available
to
accomplish
my
long
term
goal
:
to
make
a
contribution
to
medicine
,
had
a
chance
.
I
close
this
long
set
of
lecture
notes
with
an
excerpt
of
dream
that
has
become
reality
.
Dateline
:
January
30
,
1998
,
Scott
&
White
Hospital
,
Temple
,
Texas
.
A
51
year
old
white
female
admitted
to
emergency
room
with
chest
pain
rated
as
9
out
of
10
with
radiation
to
the
upper
jaw
and
associated
with
shortness
of
breath
,
nausea
,
and
diaphoresis
.
A
new
technique
for
monitoring
the
severity
of
the
heart
damage
is
employed
.
MALDI
spectra
,
recorded
over
a
period
of
3
days
on
the
proteins
present
in
the
patients
HDL
,
shows
an
increase
in
the
concentration
of
the
acute
phase
response
protein
,
serum
amyloid
SAA
,
an
indication
of
extensive
damage
to
the
inferior
myocardial
wall
.
Attending
physician
,
Catherine
J
.
McNeal
,
MD
,
Ph
.
D
.
MALDI
spectra
of
a
heart
patient
recorded
over
a
period
of
3
days
.
(
A
special
thanks
to
Dave
Russell
and
his
group
in
the
Texas
A
&
M
,
Department
of
Chemistry
,
Laboratory
for
Biological
Mass
Spectrometry
for
obtaining
these
data
for
us
.
It
was
carried
out
on
a
very
long
Perspective
Biosystems
Instrument
)
.
©
2006
Sociedade
Brasileira
de
Física
Caixa
Postal
66328
05315
-
970
São
Paulo
SP
-
Brazil
Tel
.
:
+
55
11
3091
-
6922
Fax
:
(
55
11
)
3816
-
2063
CEB
-
Centro
de
Engenharia
Biomédica
This
issue
of
MultiCiência
brings
about
matters
on
Health
Technology
.
Plenty
of
prospective
and
hope
seem
to
lie
ahead
over
new
technologies
.
A
significant
amount
of
work
has
been
carried
out
,
and
significant
advances
are
noticeable
in
every
single
area
.
Nevertheless
,
one
needs
to
consider
carefully
the
meaning
of
owning
and
using
health
care
equipment
based
on
more
advanced
technology
.
What
are
the
benefits
and
problems
that
may
ensue
?
It
is
not
hard
to
figure
out
the
amazing
benefits
brought
about
by
miniaturization
of
diagnostic
devices
.
This
issue
presents
new
ideas
on
equipment
for
clinical
analysis
(
diagnostic
devices
)
.
A
clear
trend
towards
lab
-
on
-
chip
using
the
microfabrication
and
miniaturization
technology
will
most
likely
flood
the
market
in
the
next
few
years
.
Brazilian
research
can
effectively
bring
contributions
to
this
field
,
as
shown
by
Luiz
Otavio
Saraiva
Ferreira
in
his
article
,
also
warning
us
about
the
new
challenges
.
As
the
author
points
out
,
“
one
may
conclude
that
a
cultural
change
involving
the
entire
community
dealing
with
diagnostic
devices
is
under
way
affecting
equipment
operators
,
maintenance
crews
,
personnel
in
charge
of
equipment
specification
,
and
health
system
managers
”
.
Innovative
technologies
will
require
new
approaches
regarding
their
use
and
incorporation
.
Maybe
no
other
area
in
medicine
has
benefited
more
from
technology
from
a
practical
point
of
view
than
medical
imaging
.
From
a
deeper
knowledge
on
anatomical
structures
gained
from
the
application
of
non
-
invasive
procedures
,
to
the
realm
of
the
structure
-
function
association
,
technological
advances
have
brought
about
innovations
and
improvements
regarding
the
medical
practice
,
both
for
diagnosis
and
for
surgical
treatment
support
.
It
is
unquestionable
that
nuclear
magnetic
resonance
and
other
techniques
developed
from
nuclear
medicine
have
contributed
significantly
,
as
analyzed
and
richly
depicted
by
Eduardo
Tinóis
da
Silva
in
his
article
.
Positron
emission
tomography
(
PET
)
and
functional
magnetic
resonance
imaging
(
fMRI
)
exemplify
how
image
technology
has
made
the
unknown
accessible
,
rendering
visible
what
formerly
seemed
transparent
.
Nowadays
,
it
is
virtually
impossible
to
ignore
the
myriad
of
new
products
constantly
becoming
available
.
Digital
electronics
changes
rapidly
.
Millions
of
people
all
over
the
world
have
incorporated
to
their
daily
lives
cell
phones
,
produced
with
new
shapes
,
colors
,
and
functions
of
increasing
complexity
.
Yet
,
how
many
of
them
do
not
hesitate
to
exchange
more
essential
products
for
new
cell
phones
,
in
order
to
play
those
little
keyboards
,
talk
to
friends
,
and
get
so
many
messages
at
any
time
or
place
?
Computers
may
be
seen
as
another
trivial
example
.
Nevertheless
,
how
many
computer
owners
can
actually
use
a
computer
for
more
than
“
browsing
the
Internet
?
”
The
big
issue
is
that
health
equipment
cannot
be
considered
an
exception
.
However
,
from
the
sphygmomanometer
routinely
used
for
blood
pressure
measurement
,
to
the
complex
equipment
for
nuclear
magnetic
resonance
,
the
problems
are
the
same
:
How
to
procure
,
maintain
and
use
medical
equipment
correctly
and
safely
?
When
update
or
consider
them
obsolete
?
Using
equipment
poorly
installed
and
maintained
,
or
kept
in
improper
environment
and
/
or
operated
by
untrained
personnel
may
be
catastrophic
.
As
well
shown
by
Gerson
Florence
and
Saide
Jorge
Calil
in
their
article
,
much
of
the
risk
(
i
.
e
.
,
potential
sources
of
damage
)
involving
medical
equipment
stems
from
the
environment
,
rather
than
from
the
equipment
itself
.
There
are
ways
to
minimize
the
risk
,
but
actions
ought
to
be
taken
at
several
levels
.
The
risk
factor
is
a
systemic
issue
.
It
is
not
legitimate
to
say
"
making
errors
is
human
"
!
In
the
hospital
environment
errors
do
not
necessarily
occur
due
to
negligence
.
There
are
a
number
of
error
-
generating
factors
,
and
most
of
them
can
be
targeted
.
Advanced
centers
where
health
systems
are
carefully
controlled
,
more
than
five
people
die
due
to
errors
every
hour
in
USA
hospitals
(
1
)
,
and
in
UK
,
errors
have
harmed
as
much
as
ten
per
cent
of
inpatients
,
which
corresponds
to
about
850
,
000
cases
per
year
(
2
)
.
Medical
equipment
ownership
and
use
do
require
special
care
and
financial
resources
for
maintenance
.
In
1995
,
the
Brazilian
Ministry
of
Health
(
MH
)
revealed
that
medical
equipment
in
bulk
quantities
worthing
billions
of
reals
were
inoperative
due
to
poor
maintenance
.
It
can
be
figured
that
10
to
20
per
cent
of
the
total
available
medical
equipment
in
Brazil
would
fail
if
submitted
to
safety
inspection
tests
.
The
awareness
of
such
a
situation
has
triggered
reaction
from
the
MH
,
which
recently
has
initiated
a
program
for
personnel
training
in
medical
equipment
maintenance
management
practices
(
3
)
.
Data
has
being
issued
by
the
MH
regarding
medical
equipment
in
health
facilities
(
HF
)
in
Brazil
.
From
the
data
available
in
10
/
19
/
2004
for
São
Paulo
State
(
http
:
//
cnes
.
datasus
.
gov
.
br
)
,
we
can
estimate
that
all
equipment
would
be
worthing
from
a
minimum
of
R
$
8
,
150
,
631
,
150
.
00
up
to
a
maximum
five
times
greater
(
source
:
ECRI
-
Emergency
Care
Research
Institute
,
USA
)
.
Therefore
,
if
the
equipment
is
to
receive
adequate
maintenance
,
at
least
6
%
of
their
nominal
value
should
be
spent
yearly
,
or
R
$
489
,
037
,
869
.
00
based
upon
the
minimum
above
.
We
believe
that
less
than
10
%
of
the
public
hospital
network
have
being
able
to
apply
effectively
2
%
to
6
%
of
their
equipment
investment
in
maintenance
and
technological
updating
.
Deterioration
is
therefore
inevitable
,
and
the
amount
of
inoperative
equipment
thereby
will
also
increase
,
all
together
increasing
the
risk
for
the
patient
.
The
foregoing
deals
only
with
maintenance
,
which
certainly
is
not
the
sole
factor
to
be
considered
.
If
other
aspects
are
also
taken
into
account
,
one
may
conclude
that
the
scenario
is
quite
complex
and
may
have
an
overwhelming
impact
over
the
entire
population
.
Health
technology
evolution
implies
stepping
up
robustness
.
The
more
robust
a
system
is
,
the
easier
its
operation
becomes
.
Small
mistakes
do
not
disturb
the
outcome
,
for
the
equipment
is
able
to
resist
to
certain
disturbances
and
flaws
,
up
to
a
certain
point
.
As
a
result
,
however
,
vulnerability
increases
.
The
good
news
is
machines
can
issue
diagnosis
.
Vulnerability
lies
in
the
operation
of
such
machines
by
someone
trained
exclusively
with
keyboard
operations
,
as
once
learned
when
dealing
with
mobile
telephones
.
Although
terrific
images
may
be
produced
by
computerized
tomography
,
the
patient
is
the
one
who
takes
the
burden
of
being
heavily
exposed
to
X
-
rays
should
the
utilization
criteria
be
relaxed
,
or
the
former
(
often
safer
)
technology
be
abandoned
just
because
a
new
one
has
shown
up
.
It
has
become
very
easy
and
appealing
to
undergo
ultrasonography
during
pregnancy
.
Even
against
the
recommendation
of
the
American
College
of
Osteopathic
Obstetricians
and
Gynecologists
,
about
70
%
of
pregnant
women
are
submitted
to
an
echogram
at
least
once
.
With
an
increase
in
power
by
5
million
times
,
little
difference
is
observed
in
the
image
produced
by
the
most
modern
ultrasound
equipment
,
but
this
is
not
so
regarding
the
risk
of
ultrasound
undesired
effects
.
As
it
has
being
emphasized
,
no
law
states
that
only
the
lowest
power
should
be
used
.
One
should
consider
,
as
well
,
the
extreme
variability
in
competence
of
all
those
involved
with
the
operation
of
such
equipment
(
4
)
.
Our
statistics
in
the
management
of
equipment
maintenance
for
UNICAMP
’
s
health
area
show
that
about
1
.
5
%
of
all
equipment
sent
for
repair
at
the
Center
for
Biomedical
Engineering
are
not
deranged
,
andthe
malfunction
cannot
be
attributed
to
operation
error
.
What
would
possibly
be
the
reason
for
the
malfunctioning
?
After
detailed
study
and
advances
in
this
specific
area
,
we
are
now
able
to
identify
the
main
reason
:
electromagnetic
interference
(
EMI
)
.
This
is
not
necessarily
related
to
the
inadequacy
of
the
electrical
circuitry
.
Undisputable
and
solid
data
on
the
effects
of
cell
phone
use
in
the
hospital
environment
are
presented
by
Suzi
Cristina
Bruno
Cabral
and
Sérgio
Santos
Mühlen
in
their
article
,
where
the
authors
remind
us
the
wider
question
of
crossed
interference
among
pieces
of
equipment
.
“
One
of
the
most
effective
ways
to
avoid
EMI
is
to
build
equipment
providing
for
electromagnetic
compatibility
under
pre
-
established
conditions
”
.
Wireless
communication
inside
a
hospital
may
turn
out
to
be
an
electromagnetic
ocean
with
unpredictable
“
waves
”
.
This
is
a
concrete
and
a
definitely
unresolved
issue
!
Should
we
make
believe
it
is
inexistent
,
or
are
we
going
to
engage
ourselves
in
an
effort
to
make
it
visible
to
the
point
that
it
may
be
considered
as
a
managerial
risk
?
Solutions
to
enhance
safety
in
the
use
of
health
technology
need
to
be
systemic
and
multidisciplinary
.
The
article
by
Binseng
Wang
presents
a
realistic
proposal
of
framework
towards
planning
,
incorporation
and
management
of
medical
technology
.
One
important
point
is
that
the
approach
should
include
a
health
policy
defined
in
a
broader
scope
,
and
the
various
phases
of
the
technological
incorporation
would
require
adequate
strategic
planning
by
the
very
health
promoting
institutions
.
As
policy
and
rules
from
government
must
permeate
through
the
whole
process
,
the
feedback
from
health
facilities
might
and
should
serve
to
regulate
the
process
within
acceptable
levels
and
according
to
the
conditions
of
each
country
.
We
are
not
aiming
at
expressing
pessimism
or
skepticism
towards
what
is
our
greatest
motivation
in
Biomedical
Engineering
,
namely
,
to
pursue
solutions
to
face
new
challenges
and
society
wishes
.
Our
goal
is
to
emphasize
the
importance
of
a
careful
and
thorough
analysis
of
all
aspects
of
a
given
problem
.
Assessment
and
incorporation
of
medical
technology
based
on
political
or
bureaucratic
reasons
do
not
demonstrate
an
effort
to
improve
the
service
.
Such
attitudes
add
up
problems
,
rather
than
solving
them
,
leaving
no
room
for
a
healthy
competition
among
available
technologies
.
Should
the
country
be
unable
to
use
and
maintain
such
technologies
,
it
will
as
well
be
unable
to
offer
future
benefits
to
all
who
are
in
the
greatest
need
of
health
care
:
the
patients
(
that
is
,
all
of
us
)
.
See
also
into
the
Interdisciplinary
Network
:
“
Análise
quantitativa
do
termo
interdisciplinaridade
no
período
de
1970
a
2004
”
(
Quantitative
analysis
of
the
term
‘
interdisciplinarity
’
between
1970
and
2004
)
de
Lorena
Dall
´
Ara
Guimarães
e
Miriam
Plaza
Pinto
;
“
Análisis
em
inteligencia
tecnológica
¿
Qué
es
para
que
sirve
?
”
(
Analysis
in
Technological
Intelligence
:
What
Is
It
and
What
It
Is
Used
For
?
)
de
Q
.
Luzselene
Ricón
Arguelles
e
Victor
Gerardo
Ortiz
Gallardo
,
e
“
Quintais
domésticos
e
sua
relação
com
estado
nutricional
de
crianças
rurais
,
migrantes
e
urbanas
”
(
Household
Backyards
and
How
They
Relate
with
the
Nutritional
Condition
of
Rural
,
Migrant
and
Urban
Children
)
,
de
Ana
Paula
Branco
do
Nascimento
,
Marcelo
Correa
Alves
e
Silvia
Maria
Guerra
Molina
.
Bibliography
:
1
-
Bogner
,
M
S
.
Stretching
the
search
for
the
‘
Why
’
of
error
:
The
systems
approach
.
J
.
Clinical
Engineering
,
27
:
110
-
115
,
2002
.
2
-
Rigg
N
.
Department
of
Health
.
An
organization
with
a
memory
:
Report
of
an
expert
group
on
learning
from
adverse
events
in
the
National
Health
Service
.
Norwich
,
U
.
K
.
:
The
stationery
Office
,
2000
.
3
-
Brasil
.
Ministério
da
Saúde
.
Secretaria
de
Gestão
de
Investimentos
em
Saúde
.
Projeto
Reforsus
.
(
The
Medical
Hospital
Equipment
and
the
Maintenance
Management
:
Web
based
training
)
.
Editora
do
MS
,
720p
,
2002
.
4
-
ACOG
practice
patterns
.
Routine
ultrasound
in
low
risk
pregnancy
.
evidence
-
based
guidelines
for
clinical
issues
.
N
.
5
,
August
1997
.
American
College
of
Obstetricians
and
Gynecologists
.
Int
.
J
.
Gynaecol
Obstet
.
,
59
(
3
)
:
273
-
278
,
1997
.
José
Wilson
Magalhães
Bassani
Master
and
Doctor
in
Electrical
Engineering
by
UNICAMP
(
with
focus
on
Biomedical
Engineering
)
.
Chaired
professor
–
Biomedical
Engineering
–
Electrical
and
Computing
Engineering
College
,
Department
of
Biomedical
Engineering
–
UNICAMP
Director
of
the
Center
for
Biomedical
Engineering
between
9
/
18
/
1998
and
9
/
8
/
2005
.
The
constitution
,
evaluation
and
ceramic
properties
of
ball
clays
*
(
Constituição
avaliação
e
propriedades
cerâmicas
de
"
ball
clays
"
)
Ian
Richard
Wilson
Overseas
Geological
Services
ECC
International
Europe
John
Keavy
House
,
ST
.
Austell
Cornwall
,
PL25
4DJ
,
England
Abstract
Ball
clay
is
a
fine
-
grained
highly
plastic
,
mainly
kaolinitic
,
sedimentary
clay
,
the
higher
grades
of
which
fire
to
a
white
or
near
white
colour
.
The
paper
will
review
the
origin
of
the
term
"
Ball
Clay
"
and
the
location
and
origins
of
several
deposits
with
particular
emphasis
on
the
mineralogical
,
physical
and
rheological
properties
which
make
the
clays
so
important
in
ceramics
bodies
.
Particular
attention
will
be
paid
to
the
well
known
bay
clay
deposits
of
Devon
and
Dorset
in
southwest
England
,
which
are
mined
by
ECC
International
Europe
and
Watts
Blake
Bearne
&
Company
PLC
,
and
brief
descriptions
from
elsewhere
in
the
world
of
ball
clays
from
the
United
States
,
Germany
,
Czech
Republic
,
Thailand
,
Indonesia
,
Argentina
and
China
.
The
evaluation
of
deposits
will
be
covered
along
with
a
description
of
the
main
types
of
ball
clay
for
ceramics
with
details
of
the
mining
,
processing
and
blending
techniques
which
are
necessary
to
ensure
long
term
consistency
of
products
.
A
brief
description
in
given
of
the
ceramic
properties
of
some
Brazilian
ball
clays
.
The
location
of
some
ball
clay
deposits
is
shown
in
Fig
.
1
.
Resumo
Ball
clay
é
uma
argila
sedimentar
,
essencialmente
caulinítica
,
muito
plástica
e
com
uma
granolometria
muito
fina
;
os
tipos
de
melhor
qualidade
queimam
com
cor
branca
ou
próxima
à
branca
.
Este
artigo
apresenta
uma
revisão
do
termo
Ball
Clay
e
a
localização
e
origens
de
vários
depósitos
,
com
ênfase
particular
nas
propriedades
reológicas
,
mineralógicas
e
físicas
que
fazem
essas
argilas
tão
importantes
para
certos
tipos
de
massas
cerâmicas
.
Uma
atenção
especial
é
dedicada
aos
bens
conhecidos
depósitos
de
ball
clays
de
Devon
e
Dorset
no
sudoeste
da
Inglaterra
,
os
quais
são
minerados
pela
ECC
International
Europe
e
pela
Watts
Blake
Bearne
&
Company
PLC
.
Descrições
sumárias
são
apresentadas
de
outros
depósitos
de
ball
clays
nos
Estados
Unidos
,
Alemanha
,
República
Tcheca
,
Tailândia
,
Indonésia
,
Argentina
e
China
.
A
avaliação
dos
depósitos
será
feita
conjuntamente
com
uma
descrição
dos
principais
tipos
de
ball
clays
para
Cerâmica
,
com
detalhes
sobre
a
mineração
,
processamento
e
técnicas
de
mistura
que
são
necessários
para
garantir
uma
constância
de
propriedades
dos
produtos
ao
longo
do
tempo
.
É
feita
uma
breve
descrição
das
propriedades
cerâmicas
de
algumas
ball
clays
brasileiras
.
A
localização
de
alguns
dos
depósitos
de
ball
clays
é
mostrada
na
Fig
.
1
.
Figure
1
:
The
location
of
some
Ball
Clay
Deposits
in
the
World
.
WHAT
IS
BALL
CLAY
?
Ball
clay
is
a
fine
-
grained
highly
plastic
,
mainly
kaolinitic
,
sedimentary
clay
,
the
higher
grades
of
which
fire
to
a
white
or
near
white
colour
in
an
oxidising
atmosphere
.
They
consist
of
varying
proportions
of
kaolinite
,
mica
and
quartz
,
with
small
amounts
of
organic
matter
and
other
minerals
,
and
are
commercially
values
because
they
increase
the
workability
and
strength
of
various
ceramic
bodies
and
have
white
or
near
white
firing
characteristics
.
The
name
"
Ball
clay
"
is
believed
to
be
derived
from
the
original
method
of
extraction
,
in
which
the
clay
was
cut
on
the
floors
of
open
pits
with
approximately
25
cm
cubes
or
"
balls
"
weighing
about
15
-
17
kgs
.
This
original
production
method
was
carried
out
up
to
50
years
ago
in
England
and
is
still
the
main
method
of
mining
in
the
island
of
Kalimantan
(
Indonesia
)
as
illustrated
in
Fig
.
2
.
Alternatively
the
name
was
derived
from
the
digging
implement
formerly
used
called
a
tubal
.
Even
to
this
day
a
power
driven
spade
is
used
underground
in
Dorset
to
mine
the
very
highest
quality
ball
clay
.
Figure
2
:
Ball
Clay
being
mined
with
a
tubal
in
Kalimantan
Island
,
Indonesia
.
Figure
2A
:
Ball
Clay
from
the
Kalimantan
mine
being
stacked
up
ready
for
transportation
.
A
detailed
description
of
the
origins
,
properties
and
uses
of
English
ball
clays
in
ceramics
was
presented
at
the
Brazilian
Ceramic
Congress
in
Recife
in
1982
[
1
]
.
The
term
"
Ball
clay
"
has
,
therefore
,
no
mineralogical
significance
,
nor
does
it
describe
the
age
,
properties
or
utilisation
of
the
clay
.
LOCATION
OF
BALL
CLAY
DEPOSITS
The
location
of
some
of
the
word
'
s
ball
clay
deposits
is
shown
in
Fig
.
1
.
It
is
beyond
the
scope
of
this
paper
to
include
all
known
deposits
of
ball
clay
but
an
attempt
will
be
made
to
describe
some
of
the
important
areas
for
ball
clay
production
.
Particular
attention
will
be
paid
to
the
English
ball
clays
to
demonstrate
the
procedures
necessary
from
evaluation
through
to
utilisation
.
BALL
CLAYS
FROM
SOUTHWEST
ENGLAND
General
England
is
home
to
world
-
class
deposits
of
ball
clay
and
the
consistency
and
high
quality
has
allowed
the
United
Kingdom
to
become
a
leading
world
exporter
of
ball
clays
.
The
importance
of
the
industry
was
recognised
in
1949
when
the
Ball
Clay
Standing
Conference
was
constituted
by
the
Minister
of
Town
and
County
Planning
.
Because
of
the
national
importance
and
scarcity
of
ball
clay
,
deposits
from
needless
sterilisation
by
other
forms
of
development
.
Three
areas
-
the
Bovey
and
Petrockstow
Basins
in
north
and
south
Devon
respectively
and
the
Wareham
Basin
in
Dorset
-
were
identified
as
being
of
strategic
importance
for
production
.
United
Kingdom
sales
of
ball
clay
,
by
area
,
are
shown
in
Table
I
for
the
years
1990
-
1993
:
Table
1
:
UK
Sales
of
ball
clay
for
1990
-
1993
(
in
tonnes
)
(
source
:
British
Ball
Clay
Producers
'
Federation
)
.
Since
1993
the
production
of
ball
clay
from
the
United
Kingdom
has
increased
as
the
data
in
Table
II
demonstrates
:
Table
II
:
United
Kingdom
production
of
Ball
Clay
,
1991
-
95
(
source
:
British
Geological
Survey
,
1995
)
.
LOCATION
OF
ENGLISH
BALL
CLAYS
The
location
of
the
Devon
and
Dorset
ball
clay
deposits
in
shown
in
Fig
.
3
.
The
commercial
ball
clay
deposits
are
confined
to
three
Tertiary
basins
in
south
-
west
England
:
the
Bovey
Basin
of
south
Devon
,
the
Petrockstow
Basin
in
north
Devon
and
the
area
around
Wareham
in
south
-
east
Dorset
.
Similar
Tertiary
clays
occur
in
Northern
Ireland
but
they
are
silty
and
have
too
high
an
iron
content
to
be
of
commercial
value
as
high
quality
ball
clays
.
Figure
3
:
Location
of
ball
clay
deposits
in
southwest
England
.
Derivation
and
Deposition
of
the
Ball
Clays
The
climate
in
the
lower
Tertiary
period
was
sub
-
tropical
and
the
very
warm
and
wet
conditions
resulted
in
a
deep
weathering
mantle
on
the
Carboniferous
and
Devonian
slates
and
the
granite
uplands
.
The
feldspar
minerals
within
the
granite
were
changed
to
a
moderately
ordered
kaolinite
.
The
unweathered
slates
have
a
clay
mineralogy
dominated
by
illite
and
chlorite
.
The
weathering
process
converted
all
the
chlorite
and
some
illite
to
a
disordered
kaolinite
.
Bristow
[
2
]
has
demonstrated
that
the
weathered
Carboniferous
slates
preserved
beneath
the
ball
clays
in
North
Devon
show
a
complete
gradation
from
fresh
slate
to
a
ball
clay
mineralogy
.
Further
movement
and
erosion
along
the
Sticklepath
-
Lustleigh
fault
system
in
the
mid
-
Tertiary
period
resulted
in
a
large
northwest
-
southeast
trending
valley
.
Sediments
derived
from
the
erosion
of
the
thick
weathering
mantle
were
channelled
into
this
valley
by
rivers
.
The
coarser
sands
and
gravels
formed
alluvial
sheets
or
fans
on
the
valley
floor
and
the
clay
,
silt
and
vegetation
debris
accumulated
in
the
swamp
-
like
lakes
.
A
series
of
tectonic
basins
developed
along
the
fault
line
giving
rise
to
the
south
Devon
Bovey
Basin
and
the
north
Devon
Petrockstow
Basin
.
These
tectonic
basin
were
areas
of
crustal
weakness
which
enabled
the
slow
accumulation
of
ball
clays
,
unconsolidated
sands
and
lignites
.
Subsidence
of
the
valley
floor
in
the
basin
areas
was
probably
linked
to
periods
of
earthquake
activity
and
movement
on
the
fault
system
.
A
Bovey
Basin
gravity
survey
recorded
a
maximum
depth
in
excess
of
1300
metres
[
3
]
:
at
Petrockstow
a
British
Geological
Survey
borehole
confirmed
a
maximum
depth
of
approximately
750
metres
[
4
]
.
These
sediments
have
been
dated
by
examining
pollen
samples
and
they
range
from
upper
Eocene
to
Middle
Oligocene
,
35
to
28
million
years
old
[
5
]
.
The
South
Devon
Bovey
Basin
The
Bovey
Basin
extends
for
approximately
11
km
northwest
-
southeast
and
6
km
in
an
east
-
west
direction
(
Fig
.
4
)
.
A
complex
sedimentary
history
with
sediments
derived
from
different
sources
has
been
identified
[
6
,
7
]
.
The
ball
clay
mineralogy
comprises
varying
proportions
of
disordered
or
ordered
kaolinite
,
illite
and
quartz
.
The
ball
clays
containing
a
high
content
of
ordered
kaolinite
were
largely
derived
from
weathered
granite
-
these
types
of
ball
clay
are
often
found
in
the
upper
levels
of
the
sequence
and
may
represent
the
products
of
unroofing
and
erosion
of
the
Dartmoor
granite
.
Those
sediments
containing
disordered
kaolinite
and
illite
are
probably
derived
from
weathered
slates
.
Figure
4
:
Stratigraphy
of
Bovey
Basin
,
south
Devon
.
The
geological
sequence
(
Bovey
Formation
)
has
been
sub
-
divided
based
on
the
clay
,
sand
and
lignite
content
and
the
clay
mineralogy
(
Fig
.
3
)
.
The
sequence
is
a
follows
(
Table
III
)
.
Table
III
:
The
Bovey
Formation
.
A
geological
section
across
the
eastern
part
of
the
Bovey
Basin
is
shown
in
Fig
.
5
.
A
typical
view
of
a
sequence
from
a
ball
clay
pit
in
the
Bovey
Basin
is
shown
in
Fig
.
6
exhibiting
the
wide
range
of
working
seams
interbedded
with
lignites
.
Figure
6
:
A
typical
south
Devon
Ball
Clay
pit
face
.
The
North
Devon
Petrockstow
Basin
The
Petrockstow
Basin
is
narrower
and
more
elongate
that
the
Bovey
Basin
being
6
km
northwest
-
southeast
by
1
.
5
km
east
-
west
.
The
basin
is
divided
into
a
deep
,
axial
trough
and
shallower
,
marginal
shelves
in
the
northeast
and
southern
areas
,
which
have
been
developed
for
clay
extraction
.
The
clay
area
is
bounded
by
two
north
-
westerly
trending
faults
of
the
Sticklepath
-
Lustleigh
fault
zone
(
Fig
.
7
)
.
Faulting
divides
the
basin
into
a
deep
central
trough
with
marginal
shelf
areas
.
In
the
centre
of
the
trough
,
a
hole
drilled
on
the
site
of
a
small
negative
gravity
anomaly
proved
a
total
thickness
of
661
m
of
Tertiary
sediments
,
overlying
Upper
Carboniferous
strata
.
The
sediments
filling
the
axial
trough
consist
largely
of
silts
,
sands
and
gravels
,
with
only
subordinate
brown
clays
and
lignites
.
On
the
marginal
shelf
areas
coarse
sediments
are
absent
and
ball
clays
with
variable
silt
content
and
some
lignite
are
dominat
,
but
towards
the
central
trough
the
quality
of
the
clay
rapidly
deteriorates
.
The
Petrockstow
Basin
is
thought
to
be
the
relic
of
a
river
system
which
flowed
northwards
along
the
line
of
the
Sticklepath
fault
zone
,
the
coarse
sediments
being
deposited
along
the
central
trough
,
with
deposition
of
the
ball
clays
taking
place
under
the
gentler
conditions
of
a
flood
-
plain
environment
.
Figure
7
:
Geological
map
of
the
Petrockstow
Basin
,
north
Devon
.
Wareham
Basin
The
Dorset
ball
clays
in
the
Wareham
Basin
(
Fig
.
8
)
are
formed
from
the
erosion
of
Juarassic
and
Creataceous
rocks
under
sub
-
tropical
conditions
.
The
clays
were
transported
down
meandering
rivers
to
a
large
flood
-
plain
.
Here
the
clay
-
laden
suspension
mixed
with
acid
swamp
water
causing
sedimentation
of
the
clay
particles
(
by
flocculation
?
)
.
Dorset
ball
clays
occur
within
the
various
clay
sequences
of
the
Poole
Formation
within
the
Brackelsham
Group
(
Fig
.
9
)
formerly
known
as
the
Bagshot
beds
and
are
of
lower
-
mid
Eocene
in
age
.
The
sediments
comprise
interbedded
sands
,
silts
and
clays
deposited
in
a
large
flood
-
plain
.
Figure
9
:
Stratigraphy
of
the
Wareham
Basin
Tertiary
Sediments
,
Dorset
.
Dorset
clays
are
fine
grained
,
very
plastic
and
exceptionally
low
in
carbon
content
.
Geological
Evaluation
of
Deposits
Both
ECC
International
Europe
-
ECC
Ball
Clays
(
will
be
referred
to
as
ECC
)
and
WBB
Devon
Clay
Ltd
(
the
operations
in
Devon
of
Watts
Blake
Bearne
&
Co
PLC
-
will
be
referred
to
as
WBB
)
have
carried
out
detailed
exploration
and
,
on
a
regular
basis
,
carry
out
drilling
for
deposit
evaluation
and
mine
control
purposes
.
Despite
the
vast
array
of
sophisticated
geological
,
geochemical
and
geophysical
exploration
tools
available
today
few
have
any
real
application
to
assist
in
the
exploration
for
ball
clay
:
Exploration
Methods
a
.
Geochemistry
has
little
application
as
most
ball
clays
are
relatively
inert
and
do
not
leachable
or
mobile
trace
elements
which
show
up
in
stream
or
soil
samples
.
b
.
Geophysics
can
be
defined
into
two
types
,
first
remote
sensing
from
satellites
or
aircraft
and
second
group
systems
.
Remote
sensing
may
well
prove
useful
and
essential
in
parts
of
the
globe
where
the
terrain
is
difficult
or
there
are
no
maps
.
Also
spectral
analysing
certain
wavelengths
of
light
,
some
are
capable
of
identifying
clay
minerals
where
exposed
at
surface
or
where
they
affect
vegetation
.
They
also
allow
structural
analysis
to
be
carried
out
which
may
prove
invaluable
in
defining
fault
zones
and
basins
.
Most
importantly
maps
can
be
made
from
satellite
imagery
and
air
photographs
.
Ground
based
geophysics
may
help
identify
whether
a
clay
sequence
or
seam
is
present
,
or
indicate
its
subsurface
features
/
geometry
(
Seismic
profiling
.
Gravity
surveys
can
help
define
basins
like
Bovey
and
Petrockstow
)
.
Whilst
borehole
geophysics
and
gamma
logs
have
their
uses
it
does
not
tell
the
user
the
clay
quality
or
quantity
.
c
.
Borehole
Geophysics
can
assist
in
the
exploration
for
stratified
clay
deposits
and
has
advanced
considerably
with
many
slim
hole
systems
now
available
.
The
main
method
used
is
the
natural
gamma
logger
.
A
probe
is
lowered
down
the
hole
which
contains
a
scintillation
counter
which
is
extremely
sensitive
and
picks
up
radioactive
particles
which
is
extremely
sensitive
and
picks
up
radioactive
particles
which
is
extremely
sensitive
and
picks
up
radioactive
particles
which
occur
naturally
.
In
most
sediments
the
isotope
of
Potash
(
K40
)
is
present
-
the
greater
the
clay
content
the
greater
the
K40
.
Sands
and
lignites
obviously
give
very
low
levels
.
Therefore
a
continuous
recording
of
each
borehole
can
be
made
(
Fig
.
10
)
,
which
is
more
important
for
its
signature
than
its
actual
radioactive
count
.
It
is
in
essence
a
geological
finger
-
print
with
comparison
of
logs
through
the
same
sequence
exhibiting
similar
patterns
which
can
be
utilised
for
correlation
purposes
in
defining
the
stratigraphy
and
,
sometimes
,
the
structure
.
Figure
10
:
Gamma
Ray
Borehole
log
from
a
Dorset
Borehole
.
d
.
Drilling
is
the
only
satisfactory
way
to
explore
and
develop
ball
clay
deposits
by
obtaining
representative
samples
regularly
spaced
in
the
seam
and
across
the
deposit
.
This
can
be
achieved
by
core
drilling
(
typical
drill
rig
shown
in
Fig
.
11
)
,
percussive
shell
and
auger
,
flight
auger
,
or
by
pitting
and
face
samples
.
These
are
the
only
positive
methods
.
Because
ceramic
test
require
large
amounts
of
sample
,
and
often
clays
are
difficult
to
core
drill
,
large
diameter
samples
are
desirable
.
In
the
U
.
K
.
"
N
"
size
(
55
mm
)
or
"
H
"
size
(
75
mm
)
core
are
taken
and
have
proved
effective
for
evaluating
clay
deposits
.
ECC
utilise
the
"
Datamine
"
system
for
evaluating
reserves
and
detailed
plots
are
prepared
(
Fig
.
12
)
from
borehole
information
(
a
typical
borehole
print
-
out
is
shown
in
Fig
.
13
)
.
Figure
11
:
A
Geological
Exploration
rig
drilling
for
Ball
Clay
in
Devon
.
Figure
12
:
Computerised
logging
of
pit
geometry
utilising
borehole
information
.
Planning
and
Environmental
Matters
The
need
for
planning
permission
to
work
a
mineral
is
a
major
hurdle
to
overcome
in
developing
a
mineral
resource
.
The
planning
process
is
complex
,
frequently
taking
several
years
to
prepare
an
application
which
it
is
hoped
will
prove
successful
.
The
planning
process
required
description
of
the
deposit
,
the
need
for
the
mineral
,
how
it
will
be
worked
,
the
methods
of
working
and
removal
of
mineral
,
and
importantly
how
the
site
will
be
restored
at
the
end
of
the
day
.
Recently
,
certain
mineral
developments
have
been
required
to
produce
an
environmental
assessment
of
their
proposal
which
basically
requires
an
existing
audit
of
the
environment
at
the
site
and
surrounding
area
-
these
include
assessments
of
geology
,
ecology
,
archaeology
and
landscape
value
of
a
site
.
Also
details
must
be
given
of
environmental
protection
and
restoration
.
Having
prepared
all
the
relevant
information
a
planning
application
is
lodged
with
the
mineral
planning
authority
.
At
this
stage
the
application
is
publicised
,
the
public
invited
to
comment
and
statutory
or
nominated
consultees
are
given
the
application
to
comment
on
(
bodies
such
as
Nature
Conservancy
,
English
Heritage
and
Ministry
of
Agriculture
)
.
The
planning
authority
collate
and
examine
the
responses
and
recommend
to
the
elected
representatives
whether
the
scheme
should
be
approved
or
not
.
If
it
is
approved
then
a
permission
is
issued
with
conditions
which
have
to
be
met
by
the
mineral
developer
.
The
whole
process
can
take
months
as
the
information
is
exchanged
,
sought
and
clarified
.
Summary
of
Explorations
Stages
A
brief
summary
of
exploration
activity
would
be
as
follows
;
1
.
Geological
Investigation
based
on
market
demand
for
internal
and
export
markets
.
2
.
Target
areas
selected
,
exploration
permit
acquired
.
3
.
Drilling
programme
drawn
up
.
4
.
Limited
objective
drilling
programme
;
4
.
1
To
determine
geology
.
4
.
2
Occurrence
of
ball
clay
seams
(
one
hole
per
20
hectares
)
.
5
.
Intensive
drilling
programme
-
every
50
m
our
down
to
20
m
spacing
if
necessary
.
5
.
1
Determine
detail
for
mine
planning
.
5
.
2
Sufficient
sample
for
laboratory
assessment
.
5
.
3
Establish
ceramic
grade
and
continuity
of
quality
(
one
hole
per
hectare
-
minimum
)
.
6
.
Report
,
analyses
,
reserves
.
Bulk
sampling
and
detailed
laboratory
investigation
with
trial
samples
to
customers
.
Body
work
evaluation
.
7
.
Planning
permission
:
Public
enquiry
.
8
.
Working
of
pit
.
9
.
Above
all
-
a
good
return
on
investment
.
Mineralogical
Composition
of
Ball
Clays
Ball
clays
,
unlike
china
clays
,
generally
cannot
be
economically
refined
after
they
have
been
excavated
,
and
therefore
the
customer
has
to
accept
them
as
they
are
,
with
all
the
mineralogical
components
still
present
in
the
sediments
.
All
the
components
are
in
a
finely
divided
form
,
and
occur
as
an
intimate
mixture
which
defies
attempts
at
separation
without
the
use
of
expensive
and
lengthy
processes
.
The
principal
components
of
ball
clays
are
disordered
kaolinite
,
micaceous
matter
and
quartz
.
The
kaolinite
components
of
ball
clays
of
Devon
is
of
the
`
b
-
axis
disordered
'
type
.
A
TEM
of
a
typical
ball
clay
(
Fig
.
14A
)
showing
the
disordered
kaolinite
is
compared
with
a
crystalline
kaolinite
derived
from
a
Cornish
granite
(
Fig
.
14B
)
.
Various
workers
have
suggested
methods
by
which
the
degree
of
crystallinity
of
the
kaolinite
may
be
quantified
.
A
degree
of
crystallinity
of
zero
represents
completely
disordered
kaolinite
,
whilst
a
degree
of
crystallinity
of
approximately
2
represents
nearly
perfectly
formed
kaolinite
.
For
the
south
Devon
clays
,
a
range
of
values
from
approximately
0
.
1
to
0
.
9
has
been
obtained
,
whilst
the
range
of
values
from
the
north
Devon
deposit
is
much
narrower
,
ranging
from
less
than
0
.
1
to
0
.
25
-
0
.
30
.
In
addition
of
the
structural
disorder
,
isomorphous
substitution
is
known
to
occur
within
the
kaolinite
lattice
.
The
most
common
substitution
which
occurs
is
that
of
iron
and
magnesium
replacing
aluminium
in
the
octahedral
layer
of
the
kaolinite
which
results
in
a
charge
inbalance
which
will
affect
certain
other
properties
of
the
clay
,
for
example
its
cation
exchange
capacity
.
Ball
clays
from
both
the
Devon
deposits
contain
substantial
amounts
of
micaceous
materials
.
A
great
many
ideas
have
been
put
forward
as
to
the
exact
nature
of
the
micaceous
matter
,
it
having
been
variously
described
as
illite
,
micromica
,
hydromica
and
hydro
-
muscovite
.
Its
silica
-
alumina
ratio
and
alkali
content
point
to
its
being
a
hydro
-
muscovite
.
Its
silica
-
alumina
ratio
and
alkali
content
point
to
its
being
a
hydro
-
muscovite
,
and
this
is
borne
out
X
-
ray
diffraction
patterns
being
similar
to
muscovite
.
Figure
14A
:
TEM
of
a
typical
Devon
Ball
clay
showing
dis
-
ordered
kaolin
type
.
Figure
14B
:
TEM
of
a
typical
Cornish
China
clay
showing
crystallinity
of
kaolin
.
The
quartz
found
in
the
ball
clays
is
not
the
same
coarse
angular
material
found
in
china
clay
matrix
but
a
much
finer
water
-
worn
material
,
as
to
be
expected
from
the
fact
that
it
has
been
subjected
to
several
different
sequences
of
transportation
.
A
significant
characteristic
of
the
fine
quartz
-
sand
in
ball
clays
is
the
absence
of
tourmaline
present
in
association
with
china
clay
quartz
-
sand
.
Ball
clays
,
being
whole
sediments
,
in
a
number
of
cases
contain
traces
of
other
mineral
substances
classed
as
minor
impurities
or
accessory
minerals
.
The
main
ones
are
lignite
,
anatase
,
goethite
,
siderite
,
hematite
,
limonite
and
pyrite
.
The
most
significant
of
these
,
particularly
in
south
Devon
is
lignite
,
which
is
a
soft
brownish
coal
-
like
substance
formed
by
the
compression
of
decayed
peat
beds
sandwiched
in
between
successive
seams
of
clay
.
The
type
of
sequences
shown
in
Fig
.
6
were
common
during
Tertiary
times
and
are
known
as
V
-
P
-
L
phases
(
vegetation
-
peat
-
lignite
)
.
During
the
Tertiary
era
there
were
a
considerable
number
of
these
V
-
P
-
L
phases
,
giving
rise
in
places
to
numerous
seams
of
lignite
.
In
some
parts
of
the
Westerwald
of
West
Germany
as
many
as
seven
V
-
P
-
L
phases
can
be
identified
as
one
cuts
down
through
the
clay
bearing
strata
,
The
United
Kingdom
deposits
are
not
so
lignitic
as
those
in
the
Westerwald
,
but
are
not
completely
free
of
its
.
In
the
Bovey
Basin
beds
of
lignite
separate
the
Eocene
sands
from
dark
grey
clays
,
above
which
a
further
seam
of
lignite
underlies
early
Oligocene
sandy
clays
,
and
all
told
there
are
four
separate
seams
of
lignite
or
lignitic
material
.
Very
little
lignite
occurs
in
the
clay
beds
of
the
Petrockstow
basin
,
but
in
the
West
Marland
Beds
there
is
one
seam
of
black
lignitic
clay
.
The
Wareham
Beds
(
Dorset
)
do
not
contain
much
lignite
,
but
there
is
evidence
of
one
V
-
P
-
L
phase
during
the
period
of
deposition
,
which
manifests
itself
as
seam
of
lignite
about
one
metre
thick
.
The
composition
of
the
lignite
is
:
resins
and
tannins
;
fats
and
waxes
;
lignin
and
humic
acids
;
cellulose
and
some
residual
mineral
matter
.
An
analysis
of
a
typical
lignite
is
given
as
Carbon
,
46
.
8
%
;
Hydrogen
,
3
.
5
%
;
Nitrogen
,
0
.
5
%
;
Sulphur
,
3
.
2
%
;
Oxygen
,
18
.
3
%
and
ash
,
27
.
8
%
.
The
carbonaceous
material
has
a
profound
effect
upon
the
green
strength
of
clays
.
The
modulus
of
rupture
of
a
ball
clay
increases
with
increasing
carbonaceous
content
matter
.
There
are
dangers
though
if
the
carbonaceous
matter
is
too
high
and
these
will
be
mentioned
later
in
the
section
on
Fired
Properties
.
Carbonaceous
matter
can
also
contribute
to
the
problem
of
specking
of
ware
,
largely
due
to
the
relatively
high
amounts
of
ferruginous
matter
associated
with
the
rather
coarsely
particulate
(
approximately
50
microns
)
lignite
.
Montmorillonite
present
in
ball
clays
increases
the
green
strength
,
the
plasticity
and
the
dry
contraction
.
In
the
firing
of
clays
,
the
presence
of
montmorillonite
increases
the
firing
contraction
and
,
because
it
contains
iron
,
also
has
deleterious
effect
on
the
fired
colour
of
the
product
.
Probably
the
major
effect
of
montmorillonite
,
however
,
is
in
ceramic
casting
slips
where
it
materially
affects
the
deflocculation
behaviour
of
the
clay
resulting
in
a
high
deflocculant
demand
,
low
slip
stability
and
high
slip
viscosity
.
In
summary
the
mineralogical
composition
of
ball
clays
is
tremendously
variable
from
one
area
to
another
and
within
the
same
deposit
.
Whilst
summarising
such
varied
compositions
is
often
meaningless
the
mineralogical
composition
of
English
ball
clays
is
shown
in
Table
IV
.
Table
IV
:
Mineralogical
Compositions
of
Ball
Clays
,
Including
Siliceous
Ball
Clays
[
8
]
.
Detailed
work
carried
out
on
the
mineralogy
of
the
-
1
/
2
micron
fraction
shows
some
interesting
relationships
.
The
north
Devon
clays
contain
montmorillonite
and
the
Dorset
clays
a
significant
amount
of
mixed
layer
mica
-
montmorillonite
,
the
south
Devon
clays
tend
to
be
composed
essentially
of
an
illitic
mica
.
Relating
this
to
strength
clays
,
it
would
seem
that
the
montmorillonite
of
north
Devon
is
more
efficient
weight
for
weight
in
bringing
about
a
high
strength
clay
than
the
mixed
layer
material
of
Dorset
,
and
both
the
north
Devon
and
Dorset
materials
are
more
effective
than
the
illite
mica
of
south
Devon
.
It
would
appear
that
the
cause
of
high
strength
clays
lies
in
the
mica
-
type
minerals
rather
than
the
kaolinite
.
Thus
a
small
amount
of
montmorillonite
thoroughly
dispersed
may
endow
the
whole
clay
with
high
strength
and
high
plasticity
while
the
same
number
of
expanding
layers
in
an
illitic
mica
are
less
effective
.
For
general
descriptive
purposes
a
ball
clay
can
therefore
be
regarded
as
an
idealised
ternary
system
consisting
of
kaolinite
,
mica
and
quartz
.
Thus
,
ternary
composition
diagrams
can
be
prepared
which
show
the
general
range
of
composition
of
Devon
ball
clays
.
Two
such
composition
diagrams
are
shown
in
Fig
.
15
.
Figure
15
:
Mineral
Compositions
of
the
south
and
north
Devon
Ball
Clays
.
Physical
and
Rheological
Properties
Compared
with
primary
china
clays
,
the
United
Kingdom
ball
clays
contain
a
remarkably
high
proportion
of
extremely
fine
particles
.
The
north
Devon
clays
are
the
coarsest
,
with
20
-
30
%
finer
than
0
.
2
microns
and
45
-
60
%
finer
than
1
micron
.
The
south
Devon
clays
have
between
25
-
40
%
of
particles
below
0
.
2
microns
and
between
65
-
90
%
finer
than
1
micron
.
With
such
fine
particle
sizes
,
all
the
British
ball
clays
exhibit
high
modulus
of
rupture
,
the
south
Devon
and
north
Devon
clays
having
modulus
of
rupture
between
4
.
0
-
10
.
0
MNm
-
2
dried
at
110
o
C
while
Dorset
clays
have
modulus
of
rupture
between
4
.
5
-
7
.
5
MNm
-
2
(
nowadays
the
MOR
values
are
often
given
as
MNm
-
2
or
MPa
(
1
MPa
=
1
MNm
2
)
whilst
previously
the
results
were
given
as
kgf
/
cm
2
or
lb
/
in
2
(
lb
/
in
2
=
MPa
x
145
and
kgf
/
cm
2
=
MPa
x
10
.
2
)
.
The
south
Devon
black
clays
contain
most
disordered
kaolinite
,
least
hydro
-
muscovite
and
fairly
high
quantities
of
lignitic
matter
.
They
are
inclined
to
lack
plasticity
,
but
they
have
good
white
fired
colour
.
The
south
Devon
blue
clays
are
fat
and
very
plastic
with
a
high
content
of
colloidal
material
.
The
south
Devon
semi
-
lean
clays
are
higher
in
quartz
and
lower
in
carbonaceous
matter
content
than
the
blue
and
black
clays
,
while
the
high
silica
stoneware
types
of
clay
have
a
higher
content
of
coarse
particles
and
lower
unfired
modulus
of
rupture
.
The
north
Devon
clays
are
all
of
the
lean
stoneware
type
but
can
be
divided
into
two
types
.
Some
of
the
mica
content
of
these
clays
consists
of
mixed
-
layer
illite
montmorillonite
or
leverrierite
,
and
not
type
has
a
significant
montmorillonite
content
,
having
very
high
strength
and
plasticity
for
a
lean
clay
,
while
the
other
type
is
lower
in
its
montmorillonite
content
and
is
lower
in
strength
and
plasticity
.
The
Dorset
clays
do
not
differ
so
much
from
one
another
as
do
the
Devon
clays
.
They
all
have
high
modulus
of
rupture
as
shown
above
,
and
they
have
high
plasticity
,
the
exception
being
a
very
siliceous
stoneware
type
clay
which
has
a
modulus
of
rupture
of
only
15
kgf
/
cm
2
at
80
%
relative
humidity
.
As
might
be
expected
from
their
mineralogical
composition
there
is
a
considerable
variation
in
the
rheological
behaviour
of
ball
clays
.
The
carbonaceous
matter
content
and
soluble
salts
content
both
affect
the
rheology
.
The
black
and
blue
south
Devon
clays
exhibit
fairly
high
fluidity
and
low
deflocculant
demand
,
due
,
so
it
seems
to
their
humic
acid
content
,
this
appearing
to
act
as
a
buffer
.
Although
the
blue
clays
produce
casting
slips
which
are
easily
deflocculated
,
they
tend
to
need
high
speed
dispersion
.
The
leaner
south
Devon
clays
tend
to
be
very
thixotropic
,
this
property
being
made
use
of
when
blended
clays
are
produced
for
slip
casting
.
The
north
Devon
clays
,
with
their
traces
of
mixed
-
layer
-
illite
-
montmorillonite
tend
to
be
less
easy
to
deflocculate
.
The
Dorset
clays
produce
rather
low
fluidity
slip
with
high
thixotropy
.
It
is
these
slip
characteristics
which
commend
them
for
use
in
sanitaryware
recipes
.
Fired
Properties
The
fired
properties
of
ball
clays
vary
in
accordance
with
their
chemical
and
mineralogical
composition
.
To
be
able
to
estimate
the
probable
fired
properties
of
a
given
ball
clay
,
it
is
not
enough
merely
to
know
its
chemical
composition
.
It
is
also
necessary
to
know
how
the
various
elements
present
are
distributed
as
minerals
-
in
other
words
,
where
the
SiO
2
,
Al
2
O
3
,
Fe
2
O
3
and
alkalis
are
known
,
the
amount
of
each
of
these
in
combination
as
kaolinite
,
hydromuscovite
and
quartz
must
be
established
.
Generally
speaking
,
a
ball
clay
with
a
high
iron
and
titanium
content
will
fire
to
a
darker
colour
than
one
with
a
lower
content
of
the
two
,
but
where
some
of
the
iron
occurs
as
a
substitution
for
aluminium
in
the
lattice
it
has
less
effect
on
the
fired
colour
than
when
free
iron
is
present
as
limonite
or
siderite
.
The
appearance
of
the
raw
clay
before
firing
is
no
guide
to
its
fired
colour
,
as
some
of
the
blackest
and
darkest
brown
of
the
ball
clays
both
from
the
English
deposits
and
from
the
Westerwald
fire
white
.
Given
proper
firing
conditions
,
the
carbonaceous
matter
which
is
the
cause
of
this
dark
colour
in
the
raw
clay
should
be
all
oxidised
to
carbon
dioxide
and
eliminated
from
the
body
.
The
south
Devon
clay
which
of
all
clays
from
the
Bovey
Basin
contains
the
highest
amount
of
carbonaceous
matter
is
also
that
which
has
the
highest
fired
brightness
.
Where
the
carbonaceous
matter
occurs
in
particulate
form
and
there
are
an
excessive
number
of
large
particles
of
this
material
present
in
a
body
,
care
is
needed
during
the
firing
operation
to
avoid
the
problems
of
what
is
known
as
"
black
coring
"
.
Large
lignite
particles
may
also
give
rise
to
the
phenomenon
of
specking
,
but
this
is
more
often
caused
by
the
presence
in
the
body
of
nodules
or
crystals
of
anatase
,
pyrites
,
marcasite
or
siderite
.
The
south
Devon
black
and
dark
brown
clays
also
have
the
highest
fires
contraction
and
are
of
medium
to
good
strength
.
The
dark
blue
clays
generally
speaking
do
not
fire
so
bright
but
show
lower
fired
contraction
.
The
semi
-
lean
and
lean
clays
again
have
lower
fired
brightness
and
also
lower
fired
contraction
.
The
north
Devon
clays
fire
to
a
brightness
similar
to
that
of
the
leaner
south
Devon
clays
.
They
have
the
lowest
fired
contractions
of
all
the
Devon
clays
.
Dorset
clays
fire
mostly
from
ivory
to
buff
although
one
or
two
with
higher
iron
contents
fire
to
a
russet
shade
.
Strangely
,
one
clay
with
a
fairly
high
iron
and
titanium
content
has
the
best
fired
colour
of
all
the
Dorset
clays
.
This
is
because
the
iron
is
bound
up
in
the
kaolinite
lattice
and
not
present
in
the
free
state
.
It
has
,
however
,
the
highest
fired
contraction
,
but
is
of
good
strength
.
Apart
from
this
clay
,
almost
all
the
other
Dorset
clays
fire
to
a
similar
fired
contraction
of
between
9
-
11
%
at
1180
o
C
.
The
only
exception
to
this
is
the
very
lean
stoneware
clay
which
has
a
good
fired
colour
but
the
lowest
strength
of
all
Dorset
clays
.
It
has
,
however
,
also
the
lowest
fired
contraction
,
even
lower
than
the
very
lean
north
Devon
clays
.
The
presence
of
the
finely
divided
micaceous
material
in
both
north
Devon
and
Dorset
clays
appears
to
contribute
greatly
to
their
vitrification
.
Classification
of
Ball
Clays
WBB
have
proposed
a
classification
of
ball
clays
-
for
the
south
Devon
area
the
clays
have
been
divided
into
four
groups
;
South
Devon
(
Bovey
Basin
)
Ball
clays
.
Group
1
.
Clays
in
this
group
are
noted
for
their
excellent
fired
colour
.
They
are
dominantly
kaolinitic
with
low
mica
and
quartz
contents
and
frequently
contain
appreciable
quantities
of
carbonaceous
matter
.
This
carbonaceous
matter
can
act
as
a
protective
colloid
in
the
production
of
clay
/
water
slips
,
and
ensure
a
high
fluidity
and
low
alkali
demand
at
optimum
deflocculation
.
historically
,
clays
from
this
group
were
termed
"
black
"
ball
clays
.
Group
2
.
The
clays
from
this
group
,
the
so
called
"
dark
blue
"
clays
,
are
again
dominantly
kaolinitic
,
but
contain
rather
more
micaceous
mineral
and
quartz
than
the
clays
of
Group
1
.
These
clays
also
contain
a
certain
amount
of
carbonaceous
matter
which
is
generally
helpful
in
producing
easily
deflocculated
casting
slips
.
The
clays
of
this
group
are
amongst
the
strongest
clays
found
in
the
South
Devon
deposit
.
Group
3
.
The
clays
of
this
group
,
the
so
-
called
"
light
blue
"
clays
,
contain
rather
less
kaolinite
and
higher
proportions
of
mica
and
quartz
than
clays
of
the
preceding
two
groups
.
Generally
speaking
,
the
carbon
content
of
these
clays
is
low
(
less
than
0
.
5
%
)
.
Clays
in
this
group
tend
to
be
extremely
thixotropic
and
use
is
made
of
this
property
in
the
production
of
blended
clays
intended
for
slip
casting
.
Group
4
.
The
clays
of
this
group
are
the
most
siliceous
of
the
Devon
clays
.
They
are
generally
similar
to
the
clays
of
Group
3
,
but
with
higher
quartz
contents
and
lower
carbonaceous
contents
.
Fig
.
16
shows
the
general
form
of
the
dilatometric
curves
of
clays
of
each
of
these
groups
-
the
original
basis
of
this
classification
.
To
a
certain
extent
these
groupings
are
arbitrary
and
,
inevitably
,
some
overlap
occurs
with
some
seams
falling
between
adjacent
groups
.
Figure
16
:
Characteristic
thermal
expansions
of
south
Devon
Ball
Clays
.
North
Devon
Ball
Clays
(
Petrockstow
Basin
)
The
north
Devon
clays
are
more
difficult
to
classify
,
but
basically
there
are
two
types
:
Type
1
.
Contain
appreciable
quantities
of
montmorillonite
resulting
in
high
deflocculant
demand
values
and
relatively
high
slip
viscosities
.
Type
2
.
Contain
relatively
little
montmorillonite
,
and
consequently
have
lower
deflocculant
demand
values
and
relatively
high
slip
viscosities
.
This
relatively
simple
classification
can
,
however
,
be
confused
somewhat
by
the
presence
of
extremely
siliceous
types
of
clay
found
in
association
with
both
the
above
groups
.
Table
V
summarises
the
chemical
analyses
of
clays
typical
of
th
above
mentioned
groups
of
south
and
north
Devon
ball
clays
.
Table
V
:
Chemical
and
Mineralogical
analyses
of
Typical
Devon
Ball
Clays
.
Physical
Properties
of
Ball
Clays
The
principal
physical
characteristics
of
ball
clays
from
the
various
production
area
in
Devon
are
summarised
in
Table
VI
,
and
,
generally
the
widest
spectrum
of
properties
is
obtained
from
the
south
Devon
clays
,
this
being
consistent
with
their
origins
and
previously
described
mineralogy
.
Fig
.
17
illustrates
typical
ball
clay
deflocculation
curves
of
Type
A
and
Type
B
referred
to
in
Table
VI
.
Figs
.
18
and
19
illustrate
fired
colour
and
vitrification
characteristic
of
the
four
main
groups
of
south
Devon
clays
.
Figure
17
:
Deflocculation
characteristics
of
English
Ball
clays
from
Devon
.
Figure
18
:
Fired
colour
/
temperature
relationship
of
south
Devon
Ball
Clays
.
Figure
19
:
Vitrification
characteristics
of
south
Devon
Ball
Clays
.
It
is
rare
that
any
single
clay
can
be
found
which
completely
satisfies
all
the
manufacturing
requirements
of
any
one
product
.
For
this
reason
blended
clays
are
produced
which
consist
of
many
components
from
several
individual
seams
,
each
selected
in
order
to
provide
its
own
specific
contribution
to
the
physical
properties
of
the
final
blend
.
Thus
,
it
is
possible
to
buy
blends
of
south
Devon
Group
1
,
Group
2
and
Group
3
clays
,
as
well
as
blended
clays
containing
components
from
the
north
Devon
production
areas
.
Obviously
different
sets
of
criteria
are
important
to
the
production
of
any
specific
blend
.
For
example
,
a
blended
clay
produced
principally
for
use
in
the
sanitaryware
industry
would
have
as
its
principal
requirement
an
easily
deflocculated
,
easily
controlled
,
fast
casting
,
stable
,
predictable
slip
,
with
high
green
strength
,
yet
without
excessive
drying
contraction
which
can
result
in
cracking
and
distortion
.
Such
a
blend
may
be
produced
by
the
judicious
mixing
of
the
carbonaceous
Group
1
south
Devon
clays
with
,
for
example
,
plastic
Group
2
clays
and
some
of
the
north
Devon
material
to
assist
in
vitrification
.
Undoubtedly
,
the
most
suitable
clays
for
the
production
of
this
type
of
ware
are
blends
of
the
north
Devon
clays
.
These
have
the
additional
advantage
of
remaining
workable
over
a
wide
range
of
moisture
content
and
are
also
eminently
suitable
for
extrusion
or
large
pieces
which
are
to
be
subsequently
finished
by
turning
.
The
ball
clay
producer
,
ever
mindful
of
the
changing
circumstances
throughout
the
industry
due
to
the
rapid
advancement
of
technology
,
continues
to
improve
the
flexibility
and
control
of
each
blend
he
produces
,
and
additionally
continues
his
researches
for
new
blends
to
remain
abreast
of
the
steady
improvements
and
modifications
in
production
methods
.
Production
Processes
For
ECC
the
production
process
is
essentially
the
same
in
all
three
areas
-
North
and
South
Devon
and
Dorset
.
Initially
the
raw
component
clays
are
selected
and
mined
in
the
pit
according
to
the
recipe
in
question
.
A
general
view
of
a
ball
clay
pit
is
shown
in
Fig
.
20
with
an
underground
mine
entrance
in
Fig
.
21
.
An
intimate
knowledge
of
the
different
clays
in
the
deposit
allows
the
pit
operatives
to
select
the
different
seams
of
clay
with
great
accuracy
with
digging
machines
(
Fig
.
22
)
.
Nearly
all
the
production
is
in
open
pit
working
,
but
ECC
also
operates
four
underground
mining
is
high
but
it
is
believed
that
the
quality
benefits
imparted
by
these
hard
-
won
materials
are
extremely
worthwhile
.
Figure
20
:
A
general
view
of
a
Ball
Clay
pit
from
Devon
.
Figure
21
:
An
underground
Ball
Clay
Mine
entrance
.
Figure
22
:
Accurate
selection
of
Ball
Clay
seam
in
a
typical
pit
.
The
individual
component
clays
are
then
transported
to
a
central
processing
plant
where
they
are
stored
in
individual
bays
awaiting
blending
.
Some
blends
contain
clays
from
more
than
one
production
location
.
Each
component
clay
undergoes
a
process
of
shredding
(
Fig
.
23
)
before
being
mixed
with
others
according
to
the
blend
recipe
.
Some
very
complex
blends
are
made
up
from
a
number
of
sub
-
blends
which
are
then
mixed
to
ensure
homogeneity
(
Fig
.
24
)
.
The
final
blend
is
then
stored
separately
ready
for
despatch
.
Most
of
the
ball
clays
are
sold
in
this
shredded
form
,
but
facilities
also
exist
for
a
range
of
further
processing
options
,
in
particular
drying
,
granulating
,
milling
and
classifying
.
For
instance
,
shredded
clays
can
be
dried
to
a
moisture
level
of
8
%
,
and
the
,
if
required
,
broken
down
to
a
granular
form
.
The
most
common
form
of
further
processing
however
is
milling
(
Fig
.
25
)
.
ECC
operates
six
mills
in
which
the
clay
is
first
dried
and
then
disintegrated
into
powder
.
If
required
the
powder
clay
may
then
be
further
refined
by
a
process
of
microseparation
.
Most
of
the
powder
clay
is
then
bagged
,
palletised
and
shrink
-
wrapped
.
Several
stages
of
further
beneficiation
of
ball
clays
are
carried
out
at
ECC
'
s
Caly
Center
in
Stoke
-
on
-
Trent
(
Fig
.
26
)
.
These
involve
the
refining
of
the
materials
to
a
condition
where
they
are
ready
-
to
-
use
by
the
customer
without
further
processing
.
They
clay
is
mixed
with
water
to
form
a
slurry
which
further
processing
.
They
clay
is
mixed
with
water
to
form
a
slurry
which
is
passed
through
vibratory
sieves
and
across
electro
-
magnets
.
The
clay
slurry
can
then
either
be
delivered
to
customers
in
ready
-
to
-
use
form
or
spray
dried
to
form
a
granulate
.
Spray
dried
granulate
(
Hypure
)
is
extremely
easy
to
turn
into
slurry
or
to
blend
with
other
materials
in
an
extensive
mixing
process
.
A
summary
of
the
ball
clay
production
process
is
shown
in
Fig
.
27
.
Figure
23
:
Primary
shredding
of
the
Ball
Clay
.
Figure
24
:
Blending
of
the
various
components
in
a
mixer
.
Figure
25
:
A
typical
milling
facility
to
process
Ball
Clay
.
Figure
26
:
The
Clay
Centre
at
Stoke
-
on
-
Trent
.
Figure
27
:
Summary
of
the
Ball
Clay
Production
Process
.
Quality
control
is
an
important
aspect
of
the
production
process
and
beings
at
the
exploration
stage
continuing
throughout
the
whole
process
by
sampling
clay
at
the
pit
face
,
before
,
during
and
after
blending
,
and
finally
,
prior
to
despatch
.
All
testing
takes
place
on
a
routine
basis
in
the
production
control
laboratories
situated
in
each
of
the
three
production
areas
.
Clays
are
tested
for
various
characteristics
such
as
chemical
composition
,
modulus
of
rupture
,
rheological
and
fired
properties
.
A
standard
system
of
testing
is
used
and
details
of
these
tests
were
presented
previously
[
8
]
.
BALL
CLAY
PRODUCTS
A
summary
of
some
of
the
ECC
ball
clay
products
from
Devon
and
Dorset
is
presented
in
Table
VII
and
VIII
respectively
.
There
are
a
large
number
of
products
but
the
main
types
may
be
summarised
as
follows
(
Table
IX
)
:
Table
IX
:
Main
Types
of
Ball
Clays
WBB
Devon
Clays
Ltd
produce
a
wide
range
of
refined
,
composite
and
standard
ball
clay
blends
along
with
a
range
of
clays
based
on
the
Groups
1
to
4
.
A
summary
of
their
product
range
from
Devon
is
shown
in
Table
X
.
BALL
CLAY
UTILISATION
Tableware
The
ECC
International
Europe
tableware
ball
clay
range
consists
of
seven
key
products
-
Hyswite
Astral
,
Hywite
Superb
,
Hywite
Magnum
,
Hymod
Blue
,
Hymod
Prima
,
Hyplas
64
and
Hypure
Sigma
.
The
key
characteristics
of
the
seven
products
are
fired
colour
,
strength
and
plasticity
and
fluidity
.
The
range
is
suitable
for
all
types
of
tableware
and
most
production
processes
including
plastic
making
,
slip
casting
,
pressure
casting
,
dust
pressing
and
ram
pressing
.
Table
XI
summarises
the
data
for
the
seven
products
with
details
of
typical
recipes
for
Earthenware
,
Fine
stoneware
,
Hotelware
and
Porcelain
.
Table
XI
:
The
ECC
International
Europe
tableware
ball
clay
range
.
Sanitaryware
The
ECC
International
Europe
sanitaryware
ball
clay
range
consists
of
four
key
products
-
Hycast
Classic
,
Hycast
Rapide
and
Hycast
Mega
.
Table
XII
shows
the
typical
data
for
the
clays
with
key
characteristics
and
applications
shown
.
Some
typical
recipes
for
various
end
uses
are
also
shown
.
Table
XII
:
The
ECC
International
Europe
sanitaryware
ball
clay
range
.
Summary
of
Producers
The
largest
producer
of
ball
clay
in
the
UK
is
WBB
Devon
Clays
which
operates
seven
open
pits
and
two
mines
in
the
Bovey
Basin
and
two
open
pits
in
the
Petrockstow
Basin
.
The
company
produces
about
500
,
000
tpa
from
these
two
deposits
.
Around
200
,
000
tonnes
of
production
is
used
in
sanitaryware
applications
,
including
some
135
,
000
tpa
of
Sanblend
.
Blended
specifically
for
the
sanitaryware
industry
,
the
series
includes
Sanblend
75
,
the
world
'
s
first
refined
ball
clay
.
Over
80
%
of
WBB
Devon
Clays
'
products
are
exported
and
world
-
wide
demand
continue
to
grow
.
To
meet
this
increasing
demand
the
company
is
planning
to
integrate
its
south
Devon
operations
to
form
a
single
pit
,
thus
allowing
the
efficient
extraction
of
higher
levels
of
ball
clay
.
This
expansion
will
be
achieved
by
close
cooperation
with
local
planning
authorities
and
environmental
bodies
[
9
]
.
ECC
International
Europe
Ball
Clays
produces
approximately
330
,
000
tpa
from
its
three
deposits
.
Almost
95
%
of
the
production
is
sold
to
the
ceramics
industry
.
New
products
are
fast
being
developed
to
meet
the
increasing
demand
for
high
quality
and
consistency
.
BALL
CLAYS
FROM
THE
WESTERWALD
,
GERMANY
General
Geology
Clays
are
mined
throughout
Germany
but
by
far
the
most
important
regions
for
the
production
of
plastic
clays
is
the
Westerwald
region
.
The
Westerwald
region
is
situated
between
Frankfurt
and
Bonn
(
Fig
.
28
)
and
the
main
area
of
the
basin
is
divided
into
a
number
of
topographic
and
generic
basins
which
are
controlled
bye
earlier
fault
patterns
.
The
nature
and
geology
of
the
clays
the
Westerwald
region
differs
from
those
found
in
the
UF
,
in
that
the
structural
geology
is
simpler
and
clay
more
variable
in
their
content
(
as
demonstrated
by
the
mineralogy
in
Fig
.
29
)
.
Clay
bearing
sequences
were
laid
down
in
subsidence
hollows
in
the
Tertiary
period
,
some
25
-
45
my
ago
.
The
deposits
comprise
fine
grained
clays
,
largely
disordered
kaolinite
,
together
with
sand
,
silt
and
other
detritus
derived
from
the
Devonian
strata
.
The
clays
were
laid
down
in
phases
,
the
first
being
a
period
of
sandy
outwash
fan
deposition
,
with
occasional
lacustrine
interludes
.
The
more
complex
second
phase
followed
which
occurred
over
a
much
wider
area
leading
to
deposition
of
clays
ranging
from
coarse
sediments
to
fine
grained
plastic
clays
.
Volcanic
activity
commenced
towards
the
end
of
the
second
phase
,
and
the
subsequent
weathering
of
the
mainly
basaltic
lavas
dramatically
increased
the
iron
content
of
the
clays
.
The
clays
deposited
during
the
volcanic
episode
are
characterised
by
high
iron
contents
,
the
highest
of
which
impart
a
clear
red
colour
to
the
fired
body
.
During
the
final
phase
of
sedimentation
grey
clays
of
lower
iron
content
are
predominant
.
However
the
presence
of
small
amounts
of
montmorillonite
in
these
final
phase
clays
still
indicates
some
volcanic
influence
.
Figure
28
:
Location
of
the
Westerwald
Ball
Clay
area
,
Germany
.
Figure
29
:
Ternary
composition
of
the
Westerwald
Ball
Clays
.
A
Major
Producer
-
WBB
'
s
Fuchs
-
Ton
The
Italian
floor
tile
market
accounts
for
over
30
%
of
Fuchs
'
Westeerwald
ball
clay
sales
,
and
whilst
the
weakness
of
the
Italian
Lira
since
September
1992
has
boosted
the
already
substantial
export
sales
of
Italian
ceramic
tile
customers
,
it
has
also
generated
strong
pressures
on
the
pricing
of
imported
Westerwald
ball
clay
.
This
pressure
has
been
exacerbated
by
increasing
imports
of
competitively
priced
Ukrainian
and
French
ball
clays
.
Mainly
as
a
result
of
these
pressures
,
Fuchs
lost
some
important
customers
at
the
end
of
1993
.
Whilst
sales
tonnages
in
Italy
recovered
during
the
year
,
Fuchs
were
unable
to
increase
prices
in
Italy
in
line
with
production
costs
in
Germany
.
In
the
German
domestic
market
for
Westerwald
ball
clays
,
demand
from
Fuchs
'
high
quality
facing
-
brick
customers
was
strong
,
but
demand
weakened
from
their
ceramic
drainage
pipe
customers
.
Demand
from
the
domestic
floor
tile
sector
also
weakened
due
,
principally
,
to
increased
imports
,
especially
from
Italy
.
Although
exports
to
Belgium
and
the
Netherlands
continue
to
grow
,
Fuchs
'
ball
clay
sales
tonnages
in
1994
fell
by
1
%
to
about
1
.
07
million
tonnes
.
In
1994
,
Fuchs
-
Ton
'
s
substantial
ceramic
body
preparation
busines
in
the
Westerwald
had
to
contend
with
the
loss
of
a
number
of
local
ornamentalware
customers
,
who
went
out
of
business
due
to
the
recession
in
Germany
and
increasing
imports
of
low
priced
products
from
countries
such
as
Portugal
.
Nevertheless
,
some
of
the
surviving
companies
have
performed
very
strongly
,
enabling
ceramic
body
sales
tonnage
to
be
maintained
at
about
105
,
000
tonnes
.
The
total
turnover
of
the
on
-
going
Westerwald
ball
clay
and
ceramic
body
businesses
in
1994
was
unchanged
from
the
pervious
year
at
DM63
million
whilst
margins
fell
about
1
.
5
%
.
WBB
acuire
MPR
In
1994
Fuchs
-
Ton
completed
the
acquisition
on
the
1st
October
of
Martin
&
Pagenstecher
Rohstoffbetriebe
(
"
MPR
)
.
MPR
is
the
third
largest
producer
of
ball
clays
in
the
Westerwald
whose
sales
tonnage
in
1994
was
almost
550
,
000
tonnes
.
It
has
reserves
and
operations
largely
complementary
to
those
of
the
existing
Fuchs
-
Ton
business
.
The
sales
of
MPR
in
the
year
ended
30th
September
,
1994
were
approximately
£
7
.
5
million
,
and
the
pre
-
tax
profit
,
before
exceptional
items
,
was
approximatly
£
0
.
7
million
.
WWB
HAS
Significantly
added
to
its
reserves
of
Westerwald
ball
clay
by
this
acquisition
which
strengthens
its
leading
market
position
already
enjoyed
by
Fuchs
-
Ton
-
the
company
now
have
a
wide
range
of
ball
clays
available
and
the
business
is
already
benefiting
from
the
application
of
the
group
'
s
technology
.
Seilitz
-
Lothain
,
Fuchs
-
Ton
'
s
kaolin
and
ball
clay
operation
near
Meissen
(
formerly
East
Germany
)
which
was
acquired
in
1990
,
had
a
very
successful
year
in
1994
,
with
sales
tonnages
up
more
than
40
%
to
almost
80
,
000
tonnes
resulting
in
a
substantial
increase
in
profitability
.
Products
Fuchs
-
Ton
produce
plastic
clays
from
the
westerwald
,
Vordereifel
and
Pfaz
regions
of
Germany
.
A
large
number
of
grades
of
ball
clay
are
prepared
on
the
basis
of
their
fired
colour
-
white
-
light
grey
,
light
grey
-
light
cream
,
yellow
and
light
red
-
dark
red
.
These
colours
are
largely
dependent
on
the
iron
values
with
titania
levels
being
much
the
same
in
all
types
of
clay
.
A
summary
of
the
Plastic
Clays
is
shown
in
Table
XIII
along
with
kaolinitic
clays
from
elsewhere
in
Germany
and
plastic
clays
from
the
small
operation
of
Pornon
&
Cie
in
the
Allier
region
of
France
(
40
,
000
tpa
)
.
Fuchs
-
Ton
also
produce
in
Germany
a
plastic
body
,
crumble
body
,
dry
powdered
body
,
spray
-
dried
body
and
a
casting
slip
by
bulk
container
.
U
.
S
.
A
.
BALL
CLAYS
Ball
clays
of
the
U
.
S
.
A
.
are
found
in
Kenthcky
and
Tennessee
(
Eocene
Age
)
and
in
Texas
(
Lower
Eocene
Wilcox
Group
)
.
The
total
production
is
around
1
million
tonnes
and
the
main
companies
involved
are
Kentucky
-
Tennessee
Clay
Company
and
United
Clays
Inc
(
a
subsidiary
of
Watts
Blake
&
Bearne
PLC
)
.
The
prime
market
in
the
USA
for
ball
clay
is
the
whiteware
industry
,
with
dinnerware
and
pottery
,
wall
and
floor
tiles
and
sanitaryware
market
sectors
dominating
.
Significant
quantities
are
also
used
to
produce
refractories
,
tableware
,
electrical
porcelain
and
glazes
,
and
in
total
these
applications
account
for
more
than
70
%
of
domestically
produced
material
.
There
has
also
been
an
increase
in
the
amount
of
ball
clay
consumed
in
the
fiberglass
industry
and
also
in
insulating
fireboard
as
the
amount
of
asbestos
used
decreases
.
This
is
owing
to
ball
clay
'
s
intrinsic
properties
as
a
fire
retardant
and
filler
[
13
]
.
Kentucky
-
Tennessee
operates
from
active
mines
in
Kentucky
,
Tennessee
and
Mississippi
and
has
four
processing
plants
at
Mayfield
,
Kentucky
;
Gleason
,
Tennessee
;
Whitlock
Tennessee
;
and
Sledge
,
Mississippi
.
Approximately
over
500
,
000
tpa
is
produced
with
over
50
different
blends
to
suit
specific
customers
'
requirements
.
United
Clays
Inc
(
WBB
)
produce
400
,
000
tpa
of
ball
clay
and
soapstone
from
their
operations
in
the
USA
.
The
ball
clay
is
mined
in
Indiana
,
Mississippi
,
Tennessee
and
Texas
.
The
growing
Mexican
ceramics
markets
became
increasingly
important
for
United
Clays
during
1994
.
They
are
only
producer
of
Texas
ball
clays
which
are
particularly
well
located
to
serve
both
the
Texas
and
Mexican
ceramic
tile
markets
.
In
the
early
part
of
1994
a
new
grade
of
Texas
ball
clay
for
ceramic
wall
tile
manufacture
was
successfully
introduced
and
,
achieved
substantial
sales
during
the
year
,
helping
total
Texas
ball
clay
and
soapstone
sales
tonnages
to
increase
by
16
%
.
The
Mexican
sanitaryware
and
dinnerware
industries
are
important
markets
for
Tennessee
ball
clays
.
During
the
early
part
1994
,
pilot
plant
production
of
refined
ball
clay
noodles
for
this
market
was
successfully
tested
by
a
leading
Mexican
sanitaryware
customer
,
as
a
result
of
which
the
pilot
plant
was
scaled
ut
to
satisfy
sales
,
currently
running
at
the
rate
of
25
,
000
tpa
.
United
clays
are
the
only
US
producers
of
refined
ball
clay
noodles
,
and
the
introduction
of
this
product
has
further
enhanced
their
technical
reputation
.
The
greater
part
of
US
ball
clay
sales
to
the
domestic
sanitaryware
industry
is
supplied
in
the
form
of
refined
slurry
,
of
which
United
Clays
is
a
leading
producer
.
Slurry
sales
form
the
Gleason
plant
in
Tennessee
continued
to
grow
in
1994
.
The
range
of
ball
clays
produced
in
the
USA
by
United
Clays
is
shown
in
Table
XIV
.
CZECH
REPUBLIC
BALL
CLAYS
The
areas
for
ball
clay
production
in
the
Czech
Republic
are
shown
in
Fig
.
30
.
There
are
three
main
types
of
ball
clays
(
"
tone
"
clays
)
exploited
in
the
Czech
Republic
as
follows
;
a
.
White
burning
clays
(
white
firing
)
.
b
.
Ball
Clays
.
c
.
Refractory
Clays
.
Figure
30
:
Location
of
the
Czech
Republic
Ball
Clays
.
There
are
mine
area
for
ball
clay
production
and
these
areas
are
described
in
Table
XV
with
the
name
of
the
mine
,
ball
clay
classification
and
production
name
.
There
are
five
companies
operating
in
the
mine
areas
but
the
situation
regarding
ownership
is
changing
since
privatisation
of
large
parts
of
the
Czech
economy
.
Table
XV
:
Ball
clay
producing
regions
with
details
of
Mines
,
Clay
types
and
Product
Names
,
Czech
Republic
.
Production
and
Quality
of
Czech
Ball
Clay
In
the
Czech
Republic
the
best
quality
white
firing
ball
clay
is
often
used
on
wall
tiles
-
even
though
with
glazing
this
is
not
important
on
the
wall
the
Czech
'
s
by
tradition
,
will
always
look
at
the
unglazed
side
to
see
if
it
is
white
firing
!
The
production
of
clays
in
the
Czech
Republic
is
as
follows
for
1990
(
Table
XVI
)
:
Table
XVI
:
Production
of
Ball
Clays
in
the
Czech
Republic
for
1990
.
For
white
-
burning
clays
the
best
quality
ball
clay
is
found
in
the
Cheb
basin
.
The
ball
clay
is
mined
in
the
Nova
Ves
,
Karel
and
Vackov
areas
(
Fig
.
30
)
.
These
deposits
have
been
exploited
since
the
nineteenth
century
and
some
clays
is
exported
to
Germany
.
The
lower
part
of
the
basin
is
formed
by
lignite
covered
by
green
clays
.
In
the
deposit
of
Nova
Ves
the
white
burning
clay
series
commence
above
the
green
clays
with
a
very
bituminous
clay
knows
as
Nero
F
and
continues
to
the
IB
clays
.
These
clays
are
characterised
by
fine
particle
size
,
very
good
plasticity
,
white
firing
,
good
MOR
and
relatively
low
iron
and
titania
.
Production
of
white
burning
clays
from
the
Cheb
region
is
said
to
be
160
,
000
tpa
.
The
clay
Wi
from
the
Karel
mine
is
deposited
on
the
green
clays
and
shows
similarities
to
the
IB
clay
but
with
higher
iron
and
titania
.
The
KyF
ball
clay
from
the
Kysice
deposit
(
Pilsen
area
)
is
said
to
be
white
-
firing
but
is
not
of
the
same
quality
as
Nero
F
.
The
white
-
burning
clays
are
the
ones
that
we
would
compare
to
ball
-
clays
from
other
regions
.
The
so
called
ball
-
clays
and
refractory
clays
is
mainly
used
in
heavy
clayware
and
as
source
of
sintering
clays
[
14
]
.
BALL
CLAYS
OF
THAILAND
Location
and
Geology
Claymin
(
a
subsidiary
of
WBB
)
was
established
in
1986
and
is
a
joint
venture
to
develop
the
ball
clay
deposits
of
Northern
Thailand
.
Total
sale
of
all
products
in
1994
exceeded
100
,
000
tonnes
.
The
thriving
domestic
ceramics
industries
are
the
major
market
for
these
clays
,
and
exports
continue
to
grow
steadily
.
The
deposits
are
situated
in
the
Lampang
area
of
Northern
Thailand
(
Fig
.
31
)
at
Mae
Than
,
Wang
Nua
and
Jae
Korn
.
Geologically
the
oldest
of
the
three
deposit
is
at
Mae
Than
,
about
40
km
south
of
Lampag
.
The
Mae
Than
deposit
is
of
Lower
Triassic
age
and
the
workable
clays
found
consist
of
reddish
-
brown
conglomerates
,
sandstones
,
tuffaceous
sandstones
and
calcareous
shales
.
The
main
clay
sequence
,
underlain
by
a
subbituminous
coal
seam
,
probably
represents
lacustrine
and
backswamp
enviromental
phases
.
It
is
24
metres
thick
and
includes
22
seams
of
five
different
selections
.
Figure
31
:
Ball
Clay
Deposits
of
Northern
Thailand
.
The
deposit
at
Jea
Korn
,
65
km
north
of
Lampang
,
lies
unconformably
upon
the
Triassic
rocks
of
the
area
,
and
is
of
Tertiary
age
.
The
Tertiary
rocks
include
freshwater
sandstones
,
shales
,
carbonaceous
shales
,
limestones
and
lignites
.
The
clays
sequence
occurs
in
the
shales
of
Pliocene
and
Miocene
age
and
includes
clays
of
mainly
white
,
yellow
and
red
colour
.
Their
third
clay
deposit
is
situated
in
the
Wang
Nua
area
,
100
km
north
of
Lampang
,
and
these
clays
are
the
most
recent
in
origin
and
contain
much
organic
material
.
They
were
probably
laid
down
in
a
backswamp
environment
associated
with
the
rise
in
sea
level
around
6
-
8000
years
ago
.
There
is
very
little
overburden
covering
these
clays
enabling
the
extraction
process
to
be
easily
carried
out
.
Properties
of
the
Clays
Mae
Than
Area
Mae
Than
area
contains
five
different
types
of
clay
and
in
each
the
principal
clay
mineral
is
disordered
kaolinite
,
associated
with
illitic
mica
and
quartz
.
In
addition
,
certain
of
the
seams
contain
an
interstratified
clay
mineral
,
and
colloidal
carbonaceous
matter
.
Two
Types
of
carbonaceous
clays
may
be
identified
,
which
represent
the
most
plastic
and
strongest
,
which
is
almost
certainly
a
reflection
of
the
influence
of
the
colloidal
carbonaceous
matter
which
is
present
.
Clays
of
this
type
(
e
.
g
.
Mae
Vit
W
)
are
particularly
suited
to
the
production
of
tableware
(
both
vitreous
and
porous
)
where
a
clean
fired
result
is
desired
.
The
second
type
of
carbonaceous
clay
,
containing
rather
less
carbonaceous
material
,
is
again
a
strong
and
plastic
clay
which
deflocculates
easily
and
presents
a
good
,
clean
,
fired
colour
.
The
properties
of
this
type
of
clay
make
it
ideally
suited
to
incorporation
in
blends
for
the
production
of
vitreous
china
sanitaryware
(
e
.
g
.
Mae
San
)
.
The
carbonaceous
clays
from
Mae
Than
represent
the
most
fine
grained
of
materials
available
from
this
area
.
The
remaining
three
types
of
clay
are
all
non
-
carbonaceous
,
and
contain
more
free
silica
in
the
form
of
quartz
than
the
carbonaceous
clays
.
They
are
less
plastic
and
more
coarsely
grained
,
and
careful
blending
of
these
three
types
can
produce
a
clay
ideally
suited
to
the
production
of
white
-
firing
porous
wall
tiles
(
e
.
g
.
Mae
Tile
)
.
Jae
Korn
Area
Three
types
of
clay
may
be
identified
from
the
Jae
Korn
deposit
on
the
basis
of
their
raw
and
fired
colours
;
a
red
firing
clay
,
a
buff
firing
clays
and
a
white
firing
clay
.
All
three
types
are
extremely
fine
grain
,
very
strong
and
highly
plastic
.
For
some
of
these
clays
,
green
strengths
in
excess
of
150
kg
/
cm
2
have
been
recorded
.
The
clay
consists
of
a
disordered
kaolinite
together
with
illitic
mica
and
quartz
,
with
varying
amounts
of
chlorite
.
Occasional
goethite
has
also
been
noted
.
It
is
the
presence
of
chlorite
,
and
to
a
lesser
extent
goethite
,
in
the
red
and
buff
burning
varieties
,
which
give
rise
to
the
fired
colour
exhibited
by
these
materials
.
The
presence
of
organic
matter
in
either
colloidal
or
massive
form
is
not
significant
.
Because
of
their
strength
and
plasticity
,
the
red
and
buff
burning
varieties
are
ideally
suited
to
the
production
of
extruded
vitrified
products
,
particularly
split
tiles
and
bricks
(
e
.
g
.
Jae
Vit
R
)
.
The
white
burning
variety
,
which
can
be
deflocculated
readily
,
has
useful
application
as
a
plasticising
agent
in
many
white
firing
ceramic
compositions
,
including
sanitaryware
and
tableware
bodies
.
Details
of
the
quality
of
the
Mae
Than
and
Jae
Korn
products
are
shown
in
Table
XVII
.
Wang
Nua
Area
The
clay
in
this
area
consists
of
a
disordered
kaolinite
,
associated
with
small
quantities
of
illitic
mica
and
some
quartz
.
Very
small
quantities
of
interstratified
mineral
have
also
been
detected
,
and
all
examples
of
the
clays
contain
large
quantities
of
colloidal
carbonaceous
material
.
A
consequence
of
the
fine
grain
size
and
the
high
level
of
colloidal
carbonaceous
matter
is
a
very
high
green
strength
,
in
excess
of
150
kg
/
cm
2
.
The
clays
deflocculate
readily
,
have
generally
low
residues
and
fire
to
a
clean
cream
colour
at
1200
°
C
.
Their
chemical
and
physical
properties
make
these
clays
suitable
for
inclusion
in
blends
intended
for
the
production
of
vitreous
sanitaryware
and
also
white
firing
porous
and
vitreous
tableware
.
Chinese
Ball
Clays
WBB
Pacific
Clays
have
a
joint
venture
in
Guangdong
Province
,
China
,
in
which
the
Division
has
invested
through
Clayorient
in
Hong
Kong
,
has
not
been
as
successful
as
planned
owing
to
the
slow
acceptance
in
the
region
of
the
particular
refined
clays
produced
by
Xiangshan
.
Another
problem
has
been
the
sterilisation
of
ball
clay
reserves
as
a
result
of
the
extremely
rapid
development
of
construction
in
the
area
where
the
plant
is
located
.
However
,
because
of
the
enormous
potential
of
the
Chinese
market
,
other
opportunities
exist
which
are
being
actively
pursued
.
The
quality
of
Ball
Clay
No
.
1
is
shown
in
Table
XVII
.
BALL
CLAYS
OF
INDONESIA
-
KALIMANTAN
There
are
a
number
of
ball
clay
prospects
in
Indonesia
and
the
one
considered
here
is
the
operations
of
PT
Clayindo
.
The
ball
clay
concessions
of
the
company
are
situated
approximately
100
km
north
of
Pontianak
(
on
the
equator
)
on
the
island
of
Kalimantan
(
formerly
Borneo
)
.
Geologically
the
sequence
is
4
-
5
m
of
overburden
with
an
observed
sequence
of
up
to
10
metres
of
light
creamy
brown
ball
clay
interbedded
with
sandy
horizons
.
The
method
of
mining
is
the
traditional
way
with
a
"
tubal
"
(
see
Fig
.
1
earlier
)
following
removal
of
overburden
by
an
excavator
.
Production
is
up
to
5
,
000
tonnes
per
month
.
There
appears
to
be
potential
in
the
region
for
good
quality
ball
clay
and
the
current
mined
material
is
white
firing
but
with
low
strength
.
Blending
with
other
grades
of
ball
clay
may
be
necessary
to
meet
the
specification
of
higher
quality
ceramic
potting
applications
.
A
typical
result
from
the
deposit
near
Pangkalam
Batu
shows
a
MOR
of
23
(
at
kg
/
cm
2
at
110
°
C
)
,
a
fired
brightness
of
74
,
absorption
of
17
.
5
and
contraction
of
3
.
7
at
1120
°
C
,
and
iron
and
titania
levels
at
1
.
1
and
1
.
2
wt
.
%
respectively
and
the
SiO
2
level
of
58
%
is
reflected
in
the
mineralogy
of
73
%
kaolinite
,
8
%
mica
and
19
wt
.
%
quartz
.
BALL
CLAYS
OF
ARGENTINA
The
San
Julian
area
of
Patagonia
(
Fig
.
32
)
contains
sedimentary
clays
of
Quaternary
age
which
are
exploited
as
ceramic
kaolins
and
utilised
as
a
ball
clay
substitute
.
There
are
some
70
prospects
in
the
area
of
which
several
are
being
mined
.
Some
years
ago
the
following
mines
were
producing
with
the
product
name
and
utilisation
shown
(
Table
XVIII
)
:
Figure
32
:
Location
of
the
San
Julian
Ball
Clays
,
Argentina
.
Table
XVIII
:
Mines
,
products
and
utilisation
of
San
Julian
ceramic
kaolins
.
The
Tehuelche
mine
shows
three
distinct
layers
of
clay
which
are
mined
selectively
for
different
end
-
uses
as
indicated
in
Table
XVIII
.
There
is
little
difference
between
the
quality
of
the
layers
apart
from
the
presence
of
carbonaceous
(
lignite
)
material
present
.
The
El
Chulengo
mine
exhibits
a
grey
to
white
matrix
,
the
colour
depending
on
the
carbonaceous
content
,
and
consists
of
kaolinite
and
fine
-
grained
silica
.
The
clays
here
are
not
so
fine
grained
as
ball
clays
elsewhere
in
the
world
but
they
have
been
effectively
used
as
a
ball
clay
substitute
.
A
typical
analysis
of
a
ceramic
kaolin
from
the
Tehuelche
and
El
Chulengo
mines
is
shown
in
Table
XIX
.
Table
XIX
:
Quality
of
"
Ball
clay
"
from
San
Julian
,
Argentina
.
BALL
CLAYS
OF
BRAZIL
General
There
are
a
number
of
small
producers
of
so
called
"
ball
clay
"
in
Brazil
especially
in
the
region
around
São
Paulo
-
São
Simão
,
Suzano
and
Ribeirão
Pires
,
amongst
others
(
Fig
.
33
)
.
All
the
clays
,
with
a
few
exceptions
,
can
be
classified
as
ceramic
kaolins
rather
than
the
true
ball
clays
and
it
is
often
necessary
to
blend
one
or
two
of
the
different
clays
to
arrive
at
a
suitable
ceramic
body
.
There
is
a
need
still
in
Brazil
for
more
investment
in
the
exploration
and
exploitation
of
ball
clays
to
meet
the
future
requirements
of
the
important
ceramic
industry
.
A
brief
description
of
some
of
the
deposits
is
now
given
.
Figure
33
:
Location
of
Ball
Clays
in
the
São
Paulo
Region
,
Brazil
.
São
Simão
Ball
Clay
The
São
Simão
ball
clays
are
mined
in
a
number
of
concessions
and
are
sedimentary
in
origin
.
They
are
usually
light
grey
silty
to
sandy
clays
with
little
carbonaceous
matter
.
One
sample
,
a
browner
variant
,
contain
much
peat
-
like
fibrous
material
which
suggest
a
young
(
perhaps
Quaternary
?
)
age
for
the
deposits
.
Orange
and
yellow
staining
is
common
in
the
near
surface
samples
;
the
iron
contaminant
is
finely
divided
and
has
a
deleterious
effect
on
fired
colour
.
Most
of
the
free
quartz
,
which
can
be
as
high
as
24
%
,
is
sufficiently
coarse
to
be
removed
by
screening
at
300
#
.
The
-
120
#
quartz
may
be
advantageous
in
modifying
rheological
properties
for
sanitaryware
.
For
tableware
further
screening
of
the
siltier
clays
at
a
finer
mesh
would
probably
be
beneficial
in
reducing
abrasion
and
improving
plasticity
.
Testing
of
a
number
of
samples
from
the
São
Simão
area
shows
a
wide
range
of
fired
brightness
values
.
The
principal
clay
mineral
present
is
kaolinite
,
probably
a
very
well
-
ordered
variety
.
Electron
micrographs
show
hexagonal
platelets
with
well
defined
crystal
faces
throughout
the
particle
size
range
(
Fig
.
34
-
this
should
be
compared
to
the
TEM
of
an
English
ball
clay
in
Fig
.
13
which
is
a
disordered
kaolinite
)
.
Free
quartz
varies
from
3
to
24
%
,
kaolinite
accounting
for
more
than
90
%
of
the
remaining
minerals
.
Mica
content
is
low
with
the
kaolinite
/
mica
ration
being
close
to
20
:
1
.
Traces
of
montmorillonite
were
detected
by
XRD
but
are
too
small
to
have
any
effect
on
physical
properties
.
Similarly
not
more
than
1
%
gibbsite
is
present
;
minor
peaks
are
clearly
evident
on
the
DTA
curves
but
here
also
the
quantities
are
not
significant
.
Figure
34
:
SEM
of
the
São
Simão
Ball
Clay
,
Brazil
.
Particle
size
distributions
were
carried
out
on
nine
samples
and
the
results
are
shown
in
Fig
.
35
.
Apart
from
the
finer
sample
,
G
,
the
particle
size
distributions
are
similar
in
shape
and
range
are
typical
of
sedimentary
kaolins
.
The
sub
-
micron
fractions
are
considerably
less
than
British
ball
clays
.
There
is
a
very
broad
relationship
with
moduls
of
rupture
(
Fig
.
36
)
.
Halloysite
was
not
detected
by
XRD
or
in
the
electron
micrographs
.
Good
casting
concentrations
and
casting
rates
with
low
deflocculant
demand
and
thixotropy
were
found
.
Figure
35
:
BRAZILIAN
CLAYS
São
Simão
PSD
-
300
#
Fraction
(
Calculated
)
.
Figure
36
:
BRAZILIAN
CLAYS
-
São
Simão
.
Of
the
samples
examined
only
G
has
physical
properties
approaching
a
ball
clay
.
Its
strength
is
similar
to
Hywhite
Superb
(
a
blend
of
carbonaceous
clays
from
south
Devon
)
but
its
casting
concentration
is
inferior
.
Nevertheless
,
a
blend
of
G
with
any
of
the
unstained
São
Simao
clays
could
form
the
total
clay
component
of
a
good
casting
body
.
The
future
development
and
importance
of
the
São
Simão
deposits
would
be
considerably
enhanced
if
more
of
the
G
type
clay
could
be
found
.
Its
strength
together
with
good
fired
colour
are
invaluable
and
it
could
be
used
to
greater
advantage
than
fine
clays
from
other
areas
.
for
other
uses
,
such
as
tiles
and
tableware
,
the
São
Simão
clays
would
serve
as
kaolins
but
need
to
be
supplemented
by
stronger
,
more
plastic
clays
from
elsewhere
.
The
results
of
the
São
Simão
clay
(
sample
G
)
are
shown
in
Table
XX
.
Table
XX
:
Test
results
of
a
São
Simão
Ball
Clay
.
Santo
Amaro
Clays
,
Ribeirão
Pires
The
Santo
Amaro
clays
are
light
,
brown
-
grey
,
sandy
to
gritty
,
and
slightly
carbonaceous
.
From
samples
examined
the
quartz
content
varies
widely
,
ut
to
maximum
29
%
.
Apart
from
those
samples
containing
much
free
quartz
,
plasticity
and
modulus
are
similar
to
the
south
Devon
range
of
ball
clays
.
The
particle
size
distribution
curves
(
Fig
.
37
)
for
the
Santo
Amaro
clays
are
alike
;
each
clay
contains
a
high
proportion
of
sub
-
micron
material
.
Their
high
moisture
absorption
is
also
consistent
with
large
surface
area
.
On
the
contrary
,
casting
properties
are
better
than
expected
for
this
particle
size
range
.
Casting
concentrations
are
high
though
deflocculant
demand
is
high
.
Deflocculation
curves
are
quite
normal
and
slip
control
should
not
be
difficult
.
Gibbsite
present
has
no
adverse
effect
on
rheology
.
Figure
37
:
BRAZILIAN
CLAYS
Santo
Amaro
PSD
-
300
#
Fraction
With
high
alumina
and
low
alkalis
,
the
clays
are
open
burning
and
even
more
so
when
gibbsite
and
carbonaceous
matter
are
present
.
Mineralogically
the
clays
are
dominantly
kaolinite
-
probably
of
a
fine
,
disordered
type
.
The
Santo
Amaro
clays
are
useful
in
providing
strength
and
plasticity
,
an
to
supplement
the
weaker
sedimentary
kaolins
.
Their
main
disadvantage
is
their
variable
quartz
content
which
has
to
be
largely
removed
to
prevent
abrasion
and
cracking
and
to
improve
workability
and
surface
finish
.
Suzano
and
Nigrii
Clays
The
clays
from
this
area
are
light
grey
to
brown
,
sandy
to
very
sandy
clays
with
very
little
iron
staining
.
The
free
quartz
varies
from
7
-
45
%
in
the
Suzano
samples
examined
and
12
-
41
%
from
the
Nigrii
deposits
.
Abnormally
high
alumina
is
due
to
appreciable
amount
of
gibbsite
,
particularly
in
the
Suzano
clays
(
as
high
as
41
%
Al
2
O
3
with
13
%
gibbsite
in
one
sample
)
.
The
excess
alumina
and
low
alkalis
make
these
clays
open
burning
.
Improved
vitrification
of
the
-
300
#
material
is
due
to
removal
of
quartz
and
coarse
gibbsite
particles
.
The
coarse
gibbsite
can
be
visually
separated
from
the
free
quartz
;
it
is
a
dull
white
microcystalline
material
.
Fe
2
O
3
values
fall
within
fairly
narrow
limits
,
1
.
0
-
1
.
4
%
in
the
raw
unscreened
samples
.
TiO
2
is
more
variable
,
1
.
1
-
2
.
8
%
,
and
is
mainly
responsible
for
variation
in
fired
colour
.
Kaolinite
is
of
fine
particle
size
,
mainly
disordered
.
Halloysite
is
detected
by
electron
microscope
in
some
of
the
samples
.
Particle
distribution
curves
(
Fig
.
38
)
are
similar
in
shape
to
those
for
Santo
Amaro
clays
but
the
>
5
micron
fractions
are
greater
.
The
range
of
modulus
of
rupture
is
also
similar
but
plasticity
is
impaired
by
high
free
quartz
content
.
Casting
properties
are
generally
good
.
Thixotropy
is
low
and
there
is
no
evidence
that
it
is
influenced
by
gibbsite
in
the
samples
examined
.
Figure
38
:
BRAZILIAN
CLAYS
Suzano
&
Nigrii
PSD
-
300
#
Fraction
(
Calculated
)
.
Summary
of
São
Paulo
Region
Ball
Clays
The
São
Simão
clays
are
sedimentary
kaolins
with
variable
quartz
content
.
Strengths
are
typically
low
with
poor
plasticity
but
rheological
properties
are
good
.
Although
iron
and
titania
levels
are
of
the
order
of
203
%
,
high
fired
colour
and
absorption
reflect
the
low
level
of
alkalis
.
They
are
used
in
sanitaryware
,
tableware
and
tiles
.
The
finer
clays
from
Santo
Amaro
,
Suzano
and
Nigrii
are
more
like
ball
clays
in
strength
and
plasticity
,
but
have
the
disadvantage
of
containing
considerable
amounts
of
free
quartz
.
They
are
also
fairly
open
burning
with
low
alkalis
:
fired
colours
at
1180
°
C
are
good
but
are
likely
to
fall
with
additional
fluxes
in
a
body
.
Gibbsite
is
a
common
constituent
in
these
clays
but
appears
to
have
little
effect
on
their
good
rheological
behaviour
.
Mineração
Tabatinga
Ltda
A
visit
was
made
to
operations
of
Min
.
Tabatinga
following
the
Curitiba
Congress
in
1993
.
The
area
is
within
the
Parana
depression
and
consists
of
a
series
of
sedimentary
sequences
which
are
green
,
grey
and
whitish
in
colour
.
The
project
started
some
15
years
ago
and
following
a
detailed
drilling
and
evaluation
programme
a
resource
of
some
500
million
tonnes
,
enough
for
400
years
,
has
been
identified
.
Production
in
1993
was
put
at
12
,
000
tonnes
per
month
,
mainly
destined
for
the
São
Paulo
market
due
to
being
adjacent
to
the
main
BR101
highway
.
Strip
mining
was
taking
place
at
the
rate
of
1
hectare
/
year
.
Clay
is
mined
from
several
areas
-
Mina1
,
Mina
2
,
Susi
,
Preta
and
AD44
.
Various
grades
are
sold
for
tableware
,
sanitaryware
,
refractories
,
tiles
and
many
other
uses
.
The
physical
and
chemical
characteristics
from
several
of
the
mines
is
shown
in
Table
XXI
.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The
writer
would
like
to
thank
the
Brazilian
Ceramic
Association
for
their
kind
invitation
and
support
to
attend
the
1993
Congress
in
Curitiba
during
May
1993
and
to
present
this
paper
on
Ball
Clays
.
Thanks
are
also
due
to
the
Directors
of
Mineração
Tabatinga
for
organising
such
an
excellent
field
trip
to
their
ball
clay
operations
.
I
would
particularly
like
to
thank
Quentin
Palmer
,
Chief
Geologist
of
ECC
Ball
Clays
,
Wareham
,
Dorset
for
providing
some
of
the
information
on
ball
clay
exploration
.
Also
to
Nigel
Glasson
,
the
Technical
Director
of
ECC
Ball
Clays
,
for
many
discussions
on
ball
clays
over
the
past
few
years
.
Thanks
to
my
colleagues
in
ECC
International
Europe
,
especially
Chris
Hogg
,
Ian
Attwood
,
Richard
Hirst
and
Caryl
Gould
for
information
on
ceramic
raw
materials
,
and
also
to
Simon
Warren
of
ECC
Am
-
Pac
based
in
Atlanta
,
USA
.
I
would
also
like
to
thank
Dr
.
Simon
Mitchell
of
Watts
Blake
&
Bearne
Ltd
for
kindly
sending
me
information
on
their
range
of
products
and
operations
in
many
parts
of
the
world
.
I
would
particularly
like
to
thank
all
the
mine
owners
in
many
parts
of
the
world
for
permission
to
visit
their
operations
.
In
Brazil
I
would
like
to
thank
the
late
Frederico
Angeleri
of
Celite
S
.
A
.
who
introduced
me
to
the
ball
clay
deposits
of
the
S
.
Paulo
regions
.
Thanks
also
to
Ivo
Pellegrino
of
Santo
Amaro
S
.
A
.
for
being
so
helpful
in
supplying
information
on
his
mines
and
products
.
May
I
also
thank
once
again
Professor
Persio
de
Souza
Santos
for
all
his
help
in
preparing
this
paper
and
for
all
his
kindness
over
the
last
20
years
in
introducing
me
to
so
many
mine
owners
and
ceramic
companies
.
Finally
thanks
also
to
my
colleagues
in
ECC
do
Brasil
,
particularly
Jan
Bidwell
(
Managing
Director
)
and
Pedro
Bottesi
(
Geologist
and
responsible
for
Mining
and
Exploration
)
.
REFERENCES
[
1
]
I
.
R
.
Wilson
,
"
Ball
Clays
"
inglesas
;
origens
,
propriedades
e
usos
em
cerâmica
,
Cerâmica
,
29
,
165
(
1983
)
217
-
238
.
[
2
]
C
.
M
.
Bristow
,
The
derivation
of
the
Tertiary
sediments
in
the
Petrockstow
Basin
,
North
Devon
,
Proceedings
of
the
Ussher
Society
,
2
(
1968
)
29
-
35
.
[
3
]
M
.
J
.
R
.
Fasham
,
A
gravity
survey
of
the
Bovey
Basin
,
Geological
Magazine
,
108
(
1971
)
119
-
130
.
[
4
]
E
.
C
.
Freshney
,
et
al
.
,
Geology
of
the
country
around
Chumleigh
,
Memoirs
of
the
Geological
Societh
of
Great
Britain
,
London
,
(
1979
)
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[
5
]
M
.
E
.
J
.
Chandler
,
The
Oligocene
flora
of
the
Bovey
Tracey
lake
basin
,
Devonshire
,
Bulletin
of
the
British
Museum
(
Natural
History
)
,
3
(
1957
)
71
-
123
.
[
6
]
A
.
Vicent
,
Sedimentary
environments
of
the
Bovey
Basin
,
Unpublished
M
.
Phil
.
Thesis
,
University
of
Surrey
,
England
,
(
1974
)
.
[
7
]
R
.
A
.
Edwards
,
Tertiary
sediments
and
structure
of
the
Bovey
Basin
,
South
Devon
,
Proceedings
of
the
Geologists
Association
,
87
(
1976
)
1
-
26
.
[
8
]
D
.
A
.
Holdridge
,
Composition
variation
in
ball
clays
,
Transactions
of
the
British
Ceramic
Society
,
11
(
1959
)
645
-
659
.
[
9
]
WBB
Devon
Clays
Ltd
.
WBB
publication
on
"
The
production
and
properties
of
Devon
Ball
Clays
"
,
Booklet
.
[
10
]
I
.
R
.
Wilson
,
Constituição
,
avaliação
e
propriedades
cerâmicas
de
caulins
de
alta
qualidade
,
Cerâmica
,
41
,
270
(
1995
)
81
-
100
.
[
11
]
Industrial
Minerals
,
March
1996
,
UK
Minerals
,
Section
on
Ball
Clay
,
39
-
41
.
[
12
]
Watts
Blake
&
Bearne
&
Co
PLC
,
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&
Accounts
for
1994
.
[
13
]
A
.
Russel
,
Ball
&
Plastic
Clays
-
value
added
products
for
ceramic
demands
,
Industrial
Mineral
,
October
(
1988
)
27
-
47
.
[
14
]
Czech
"
Tone
"
(
Ball
-
Clays
)
Clays
,
Czechoslovak
Ceramics
Booklet
.
(
*
)
A
tradução
adequada
de
ball
clays
é
argilas
plásticas
para
Cerâmica
Branca
;
não
é
usada
na
Indústria
Cerâmica
Brasileira
,
nem
a
tradução
ao
pé
-
da
-
letra
argila
bola
.
Já
é
pratica
normal
o
uso
do
termo
original
ball
clay
.
©
2006
ABC
Caixa
Postal
11049
05422
-
970
São
Paulo
SP
CMDMC
-
CCTM
-
IPEN
Av
.
Lineu
Prestes
,
2242
-
Cidade
Universitária
05508
-
900
São
Paulo
SP
-
Brazil
Tel
.
/
Fax
:
(
55
11
)
3816
-
9343
This
chapter
is
about
basic
conditions
of
seeing
motion
(
mostly
of
single
objects
in
the
frontoparallel
plane
)
.
It
emphasizes
the
richness
and
challenge
of
phenomena
in
motion
perception
.
Apart
from
the
distinction
between
afferent
(
retinal
)
and
efferent
(
oculomotor
)
mechanisms
,
motion
percepts
can
result
from
real
(
object
)
motion
as
well
as
from
various
forms
of
apparent
motion
(
stroboscopic
or
phi
motion
,
induced
motion
,
autokinesis
)
.
Further
intriguing
motion
phenomena
include
motion
contrast
and
assimilation
,
motion
adaptation
and
aftereffects
,
and
velocity
transposition
.
Finally
,
anticipatory
performance
of
motion
extrapolation
is
considered
as
a
dynamic
case
of
amodal
perceptual
completion
,
indicating
that
visual
motion
is
closely
related
to
action
.
Keywords
:
Motion
perception
;
Afferent
/
efferent
mechanisms
;
Oculomotor
system
;
Apparent
motion
;
Velocity
transposition
;
Motion
extrapolation
RESUMO
Este
capítulo
é
sobre
as
condições
básicas
no
ver
movimento
(
na
maioria
das
vezes
,
de
um
único
objeto
no
plano
frontoparalelo
)
.
Ele
enfatiza
a
riqueza
e
o
desafio
do
fenômeno
da
percepção
do
movimento
.
Longe
da
distinção
entre
mecanismos
aferente
(
retinal
)
e
eferente
(
oculomotor
)
,
os
perceptos
de
movimento
podem
resultar
de
movimento
real
(
objeto
)
assim
como
de
várias
formas
de
movimento
aparente
(
estroboscópico
ou
movimento
phi
,
movimento
induzido
,
autocinese
)
.
Outros
fenômenos
de
movimento
intrigantes
incluem
contraste
de
movimento
e
assimilação
,
adaptação
e
pós
-
efeitos
de
movimento
,
e
transposição
de
velocidades
.
Finalmente
,
desempenho
antecipatório
da
extrapolação
do
movimento
é
considerado
como
um
caso
dinâmico
da
completação
perceptual
amodal
,
indicando
que
o
movimento
visual
está
estreitamente
ligado
à
ação
.
Descritores
:
Percepção
de
movimento
,
mecanismos
aferente
/
eferente
;
Sistema
oculomotor
;
Movimento
aparente
;
Transposição
de
velocidade
;
Extrapolação
de
movimento
INTRODUCTION
Motion
is
perhaps
the
most
important
and
powerful
visual
stimulus
dimension
.
Practically
everything
of
any
interest
in
the
visual
world
moves
.
Stimuli
that
share
approximately
the
same
speed
and
direction
are
seen
as
a
unit
,
a
figure
,
that
is
easily
segregated
from
the
background
according
to
the
Gestalt
factor
of
common
fate
(
1
)
.
For
example
,
an
animal
that
is
perfectly
camouflaged
as
long
as
it
remains
still
,
will
pop
out
as
soon
as
it
moves
.
Motion
can
tie
together
stimuli
that
are
widely
distributed
over
the
visual
field
,
by
this
overriding
proximity
and
similarity
as
perceptual
grouping
factors
.
Even
when
the
objects
around
us
are
stationary
,
their
images
on
the
retina
can
move
,
because
the
eyes
and
head
are
never
entirely
still
.
It
is
therefore
not
surprising
to
learn
that
separate
visual
subsystems
exist
that
are
specialized
to
process
motion
as
there
are
subsystems
mediating
the
perception
of
brightness
,
form
,
or
color
(
2
-
4
)
.
Another
aspect
of
motion
is
that
it
is
closer
than
any
static
stimulus
dimension
tied
to
motor
action
.
Motion
signals
a
change
in
the
conditions
of
the
environment
,
and
change
may
require
reaction
.
It
may
mean
the
approach
of
danger
or
of
a
desirable
target
.
If
we
just
consider
the
motion
of
a
single
object
we
can
distinguish
absolute
from
relative
motion
.
Absolute
motion
perception
refers
to
the
case
of
an
object
which
is
seen
in
an
otherwise
homogenous
field
(
Ganzfeld
)
,
or
in
a
field
in
which
the
object
is
so
far
removed
from
other
objects
that
their
presence
does
not
affect
its
judgement
.
The
other
,
much
more
common
,
form
of
motion
perception
may
be
termed
relative
motion
perception
.
It
arises
when
the
observer
judges
the
motion
of
one
object
in
reference
to
the
position
of
other
objects
in
her
or
his
visual
field
.
This
chapter
will
focus
on
the
basic
conditions
of
visual
motion
(
mostly
of
single
objects
moving
in
the
frontoparallel
plane
)
rather
than
on
more
complex
forms
of
multi
-
element
motion
as
represented
by
optic
flow
fields
,
biological
motion
,
random
-
dot
motion
,
motion
perspective
or
motion
parallax
(
5
-
7
)
.
Motion
is
a
spatio
-
temporal
event
,
defined
as
a
change
in
spatial
location
over
time
.
Target
motion
,
thus
,
does
not
only
convey
dynamic
properties
such
as
direction
and
velocity
,
but
also
static
spatial
properties
such
as
position
and
distance
.
For
example
,
an
observer
can
determine
the
position
of
a
moving
target
at
any
given
moment
which
may
be
indicated
by
an
auditory
signal
(
8
)
.
The
distance
information
under
kinetic
conditions
might
resemble
but
also
differ
from
that
under
static
conditions
,
as
has
been
demonstrated
,
for
example
,
with
kinetic
versions
of
geometrical
-
optical
illusions
(
9
)
or
with
a
distance
-
analog
of
Runeson
'
s
velocity
effect
(
10
)
.
Retinal
image
motion
can
result
from
displacement
either
of
the
object
relative
to
a
stationary
environment
,
or
of
the
observer
relative
to
a
stationary
object
.
Both
object
and
observer
can
also
move
together
.
All
these
conditions
cause
changes
in
the
pattern
of
stimulation
at
the
retina
,
but
despite
these
we
retain
an
appropriate
representation
of
both
our
position
in
space
as
well
as
that
of
the
object
.
Occasionally
,
errors
do
occur
in
our
perception
of
motion
,
and
these
can
be
very
instructive
in
understanding
the
nature
of
motion
perception
.
For
instance
,
illusory
percepts
of
motion
can
arise
from
static
patterns
.
Striking
examples
of
apparent
motion
arising
from
a
stationary
black
-
and
-
white
patterns
are
given
in
Fig
.
1
.
Most
observers
see
a
"
sliding
motion
"
of
the
inset
relative
to
the
surround
.
When
the
figure
is
slowly
moved
,
the
inner
disk
appears
to
float
relative
to
the
concentric
annulus
.
Eye
movements
cannot
account
for
this
illusion
,
since
it
persists
in
stabilized
vision
where
apparent
motion
is
perceived
not
only
for
the
disk
,
but
also
for
the
ring
(
11
)
.
This
illusion
is
an
example
of
intrafigural
apparent
motion
(
12
-
13
)
and
is
possibly
based
on
the
modulating
activity
of
slow
hyperpolarizing
potentials
of
"
configural
units
"
in
cortical
area
V4
(
14
)
.
Not
only
do
we
perceive
a
structured
meaningful
world
,
but
we
see
it
composed
of
distinct
objects
some
stationary
,
others
moving
in
various
directions
at
different
rates
of
speed
.
An
initial
answer
that
one
might
think
of
is
that
changes
in
displacement
of
an
image
on
the
retina
are
detected
.
In
fact
,
many
cortical
cells
are
sensitive
to
motion
across
the
retina
and
thus
could
signal
such
changes
.
However
,
a
problem
arises
with
this
simple
account
if
you
consider
self
-
motion
of
the
observer
in
the
environment
(
15
)
.
Changes
in
retinal
location
can
be
due
either
to
objects
moving
in
the
environment
or
to
movements
of
the
observer
.
How
the
perceptual
system
resolves
the
locus
of
motion
constitutes
a
primary
problem
of
motion
research
(
6
)
.
AFFERENT
AND
EFFERENT
MOTION
SIGNALS
If
we
keep
our
eyes
fixed
,
motion
is
perceived
by
the
successive
stimulation
of
adjacent
retinal
loci
(
afferent
motion
signals
)
.
Retinal
image
motion
is
,
however
,
not
the
only
condition
of
motion
perception
.
When
our
eyes
pursue
a
moving
object
,
the
retinal
image
of
the
pursued
target
is
held
relatively
stationary
on
the
retina
.
Nevertheless
,
we
perceive
motion
.
Thus
,
the
perception
of
motion
can
be
also
based
on
a
sensorimotor
or
efferent
motion
signals
.
Afferent
motion
processing
relies
on
an
inflow
of
visual
motion
signals
based
on
retinal
projections
of
object
motion
.
Conversely
,
the
efferent
process
infers
motion
from
the
pursuit
movements
of
the
eyes
following
a
stimulus
and
keeping
it
fixed
within
the
fovea
(
Fig
.
2
)
.
The
displacement
of
position
on
the
retina
is
not
sufficient
to
specify
that
an
object
is
moving
,
because
the
displacement
may
be
due
to
(
eye
)
movements
of
the
observer
.
Two
theories
have
been
classically
proposed
to
account
for
the
problem
of
how
an
observer
'
s
own
movements
are
distinguished
from
motion
in
the
world
.
The
inflow
theory
supposes
that
the
feedback
from
the
muscles
that
control
eye
movements
is
monitored
by
the
brain
.
The
change
due
to
the
eye
movements
is
then
subtracted
from
the
shift
in
location
of
the
image
on
the
retina
.
In
contrast
,
outflow
theory
states
that
the
motor
signal
sent
to
the
eyes
is
monitored
.
A
copy
of
this
outgoing
signal
,
which
is
called
an
efference
copy
or
corollary
discharge
,
is
used
to
cancel
the
resulting
movement
of
the
image
on
the
retina
.
This
is
achieved
by
a
still
hypothetical
brain
mechanism
,
a
comparator
,
which
is
supposed
to
match
the
signals
from
the
oculomotor
centers
with
those
from
the
afferent
flow
of
images
from
the
retina
.
Modern
research
favors
outflow
over
inflow
theory
(
16
)
.
An
initial
evidence
for
outflow
theory
is
that
the
visual
world
appears
to
move
when
you
press
on
the
lid
of
the
eye
with
a
finger
.
In
this
case
,
movement
is
incorrectly
seen
because
there
is
no
efference
copy
associated
with
the
commands
of
the
eye
muscles
to
indicate
that
the
eye
moved
.
Furthermore
,
it
has
been
shown
that
such
apparent
movement
can
occur
even
when
the
eye
actually
remains
stable
on
a
fixated
target
,
with
the
eye
muscles
providing
force
to
prevent
the
finger
pressure
from
moving
the
eye
(
17
)
.
In
this
situation
,
illusory
motion
is
seen
because
there
is
an
efference
copy
but
no
movement
of
the
eye
.
Further
evidence
supporting
the
outflow
theory
comes
from
studies
in
which
an
observer
'
s
eye
muscles
were
temporarily
paralyzed
.
When
the
observer
tries
to
move
her
or
his
eyes
(
which
do
not
actually
move
)
,
the
scene
appears
to
move
to
a
new
position
(
16
,
18
)
.
A
comprehensive
functional
model
which
supposes
a
reference
signal
that
combines
oculomotor
information
(
efference
copy
)
with
optokinetic
-
vestibular
information
about
head
movement
has
been
worked
out
by
Wertheim
(
19
)
.
The
reference
signal
encodes
how
the
eye
move
in
space
rather
than
in
their
orbits
.
It
is
matched
with
the
retinal
signal
in
order
to
distinguish
percepts
of
object
and
ego
motion
in
space
.
Wertheim
'
s
model
can
especially
account
for
the
loss
of
position
constancy
,
the
Filehne
illusion
,
occurring
during
pursuit
eye
movements
.
There
is
experimental
support
for
the
model
'
s
predictions
on
how
to
manipulate
the
optokinetic
(
visual
)
input
to
change
the
strength
of
the
Filehne
illusion
,
or
even
invert
it
(
20
-
21
)
.
According
to
these
and
other
findings
(
22
)
,
the
optokinetic
pattern
must
be
large
,
not
move
too
fast
,
and
remain
visible
for
some
time
in
order
to
ensure
perceptual
constancy
.
Although
Wertheim
'
s
model
addresses
smooth
self
-
motion
and
continuous
eye
movements
,
it
may
be
extended
to
ballistic
bodily
movements
and
saccadic
eye
movements
as
well
(
23
)
.
REAL
OR
OBJECT
MOTION
Real
or
object
motion
means
that
an
object
is
continuously
displaced
from
one
point
in
the
outer
space
to
another
.
Object
motion
can
cause
a
corresponding
retinal
image
shift
,
if
we
keep
our
eyes
fixed
.
It
is
,
however
,
also
perceived
with
pursuing
eyes
,
although
in
that
case
the
image
of
the
moving
object
remains
stationary
on
the
retina
.
Both
modes
of
motion
detection
are
often
intermixed
,
for
example
,
motion
across
the
retina
provides
the
stimulus
for
initiating
pursuit
eye
movements
.
Much
of
the
research
on
real
motion
has
focused
on
determining
the
factors
which
influence
our
threshold
for
motion
perception
under
steady
fixation
.
People
are
good
at
discriminating
motion
as
a
function
of
changes
in
retinal
position
.
Motion
can
be
seen
if
a
small
dot
moves
against
a
stationary
background
at
speeds
as
low
as
0
.
2
degrees
of
visual
angle
per
second
(
°
/
s
)
.
Motion
sensitivity
is
even
greater
if
a
stationary
visual
reference
point
is
present
(
24
)
.
In
such
situations
,
changes
as
little
as
0
.
03
°
/
s
produce
a
motion
percept
.
An
important
difference
between
afferent
and
efferent
detection
of
object
motion
is
perceived
velocity
.
A
moving
object
seems
to
move
more
slowly
when
it
is
pursued
with
smooth
eye
movements
than
when
it
is
observed
with
fixed
eyes
.
This
phenomenon
,
known
as
the
Aubert
-
Fleischl
effect
,
may
be
due
to
an
efferent
underregistration
of
the
eye
velocity
(
25
)
.
Jung
(
26
)
has
pointed
out
the
fact
that
angular
displacement
differs
for
afferent
and
efferent
conditions
(
see
Fig
.
2
)
.
The
angular
displacement
of
the
fovea
is
smaller
,
if
it
follows
a
moving
object
(
Fig
.
2b
)
than
the
angle
of
a
retinal
image
shift
produced
by
the
same
moving
object
(
Fig
.
2a
)
,
because
the
eye
rotates
around
an
axis
through
the
center
of
the
eyeball
.
This
difference
in
angular
extent
alone
,
however
,
cannot
sufficiently
account
for
the
Aubert
-
Fleischl
effect
,
since
it
has
been
found
to
depend
also
on
other
factors
such
as
spatial
and
temporal
frequency
of
the
stimulus
pattern
and
circular
vection
(
19
,
27
)
.
Models
of
motion
detection
first
addressed
the
problem
how
the
visual
system
might
extract
information
from
the
stimulus
on
the
retina
,
i
.
e
.
afferent
conditions
,
were
based
on
the
visual
system
of
insects
(
bees
,
flies
)
whose
eyes
are
fixed
on
the
head
.
The
well
-
known
motion
-
detection
models
by
Hassenstein
and
Reichardt
propose
a
bilocal
delayed
-
coincidence
detector
based
on
bidirectional
cross
-
correlation
(
28
)
.
This
can
serve
to
understand
afferent
motion
detection
in
humans
as
well
.
However
,
as
pointed
out
by
van
de
Grind
,
Koenderink
,
&
van
Doorn
(
29
)
,
human
bilocal
detectors
must
be
unidirectional
correlators
to
ensure
that
we
can
cope
with
motion
transparency
(
i
.
e
.
,
the
simultaneous
perception
of
motion
in
different
directions
and
layers
of
depth
)
.
Van
de
Grind
'
s
model
is
depicted
in
Fig
.
3
.
A
succession
of
images
produced
by
a
moving
object
shifts
across
the
retina
.
The
motion
thus
registered
is
due
to
the
sequential
activity
of
receptors
in
the
path
of
the
shifting
retinal
image
feeding
into
bilocal
delayed
-
coincidence
detectors
,
i
.
e
.
into
neuronal
units
most
likely
of
the
primary
visual
cortex
(
gobal
motion
detection
)
and
of
other
secondary
visual
cortex
-
representations
,
namely
to
medial
temporal
(
MT
)
area
and
to
the
medial
superior
temporal
(
MST
)
area
(
27
,
31
)
.
Those
detectors
are
tuned
to
a
given
velocity
S
/
T
,
where
S
is
the
span
between
two
receptive
fields
on
the
retina
and
T
the
delay
.
A
two
-
fold
coincidence
unit
(
C2
)
receives
the
input
from
both
fields
and
multiplies
them
together
.
The
coincidence
unit
responds
optimally
when
the
same
pattern
of
light
strikes
first
the
region
sampled
by
F1
and
then
,
some
time
(
T
)
later
strikes
the
region
sampled
by
F2
.
One
good
stimulus
would
be
an
image
that
moved
continuously
across
the
retina
from
left
to
right
.
It
is
important
to
realize
that
this
is
not
the
only
stimulus
that
would
work
.
For
example
,
a
stationary
light
flashed
briefly
on
F1
and
after
T
on
F2
should
be
as
effective
.
We
will
see
in
the
next
section
that
indeed
such
nonmoving
(
stroboscopic
)
stimuli
dupe
the
visual
system
into
treating
them
as
though
they
had
moved
.
Thus
,
the
basic
idea
in
this
model
is
that
a
relatively
precise
temporal
coincidence
of
the
signals
from
the
subfields
is
required
at
the
multiplier
if
it
is
to
generate
a
response
.
It
should
be
noted
that
the
delay
box
in
Fig
.
3
should
not
taken
literally
to
mean
that
this
box
represents
a
separate
neuronal
unit
;
the
delay
could
be
as
well
a
functional
part
of
"
filter
"
F1
or
be
in
addition
reflected
by
the
"
multiplier
"
C2
(
29
)
.
APPARENT
MOTION
The
term
apparent
motion
refers
to
any
motion
percept
occurring
when
there
is
no
real
or
object
motion
corresponding
to
the
percept
.
Apparent
motion
comprises
various
phenomena
such
as
stroboscopic
motion
,
induced
motion
,
autokinesis
,
the
Filehne
illusion
,
and
motion
aftereffects
.
Stroboscopic
motion
The
most
prominent
example
of
apparent
motion
is
stroboscopic
motion
so
that
one
often
finds
the
term
apparent
motion
just
referring
to
this
form
of
motion
.
Stroboscopic
motion
consists
of
discrete
,
successive
changes
of
stimulus
positions
which
lead
to
the
perception
of
continuous
motion
.
It
is
the
basis
for
perceived
motion
in
movies
(
cinema
)
.
The
fact
that
we
perceive
smooth
motion
from
motion
pictures
conveys
the
power
of
this
form
of
apparent
motion
.
Much
work
on
stroboscopic
motion
has
been
conducted
with
simple
displays
.
It
can
be
demonstrated
by
just
two
stimuli
(
see
Fig
.
4
)
.
As
the
light
in
position
A
flashes
on
and
off
,
the
light
in
position
B
flashes
off
and
on
,
i
.
e
.
one
light
is
onset
shortly
after
the
other
is
offset
.
If
the
spatiotemporal
stimulus
conditions
are
appropriate
one
perceives
motion
across
the
intervening
space
between
A
and
B
in
the
direction
from
A
to
B
,
i
.
e
.
,
a
single
light
is
seen
moving
through
the
empty
space
between
A
and
B
.
According
to
Wertheimer
(
1912
)
who
first
systematically
investigated
stroboscopic
motion
,
we
can
distinguish
several
stages
.
If
the
time
interval
is
too
short
leading
to
a
high
rate
of
alternation
,
simultaneity
rather
than
apparent
motion
is
seen
,
i
.
e
.
,
two
lights
are
perceived
flashing
each
at
a
different
location
.
With
increasing
time
interval
,
the
percept
changes
to
partial
moving
and
"
pure
motion
"
(
phi
phenomenon
)
to
optimal
motion
.
If
the
time
interval
is
further
increased
,
only
succession
will
be
perceived
-
two
light
alternately
flashing
.
Apparent
motion
can
be
obtained
over
separations
of
10
°
and
more
;
with
increasing
spatial
separation
the
temporal
interval
that
produces
optimal
motion
needs
to
be
increased
as
well
.
Strictly
speaking
,
the
term
phi
phenomenon
should
be
reserved
for
the
illusion
that
motion
is
taking
place
without
noticeable
object
displacement
(
33
)
.
But
nowadays
it
is
often
used
for
all
forms
of
stroboscopic
motion
and
strict
phi
is
sometimes
referred
to
as
'
pure
phi
'
.
This
occurs
at
time
intervals
somewhat
shorter
than
that
necessary
for
optimal
stroboscopic
motion
:
one
sees
only
two
objects
at
their
terminal
positions
,
yet
there
is
a
clear
impression
of
motion
from
one
place
to
the
other
.
For
Wertheimer
(
32
)
this
meant
that
motion
is
just
as
immediate
and
direct
a
datum
of
experience
as
color
or
brightness
;
it
can
be
perceived
under
appropriate
conditions
in
a
pure
form
,
analyzable
no
further
-
an
experience
of
sheer
,
objectless
motion
.
Further
forms
of
stroboscopic
motion
have
been
distinguished
and
labelled
alpha
,
beta
,
gamma
,
and
delta
motion
(
13
)
.
Alpha
motion
refers
to
the
case
in
which
a
line
or
figure
is
seen
to
expand
or
contract
when
stimuli
of
different
sizes
are
presented
stroboscopically
.
Beta
motion
is
a
synonym
for
optimal
apparent
motion
,
i
.
e
.
,
if
the
duration
of
each
exposure
and
interstimulus
interval
are
adequately
adjusted
,
the
appearance
of
motion
is
indistinguishable
from
that
of
a
stimulus
genuinely
moving
,
hence
the
term
optimal
.
Gamma
motion
describes
the
percept
that
a
light
expands
for
a
brief
time
after
coming
on
and
contracts
briefly
when
it
is
extinguished
.
Delta
motion
occurs
when
two
successive
stimuli
are
only
slightly
displaced
from
one
another
and
the
second
is
more
intense
than
the
first
;
then
the
second
stimulus
appears
to
move
to
the
first
.
An
easy
way
to
experience
the
phi
phenomenon
is
be
produced
by
holding
a
finger
close
enough
to
the
eyes
that
double
images
are
seen
and
then
alternately
opening
and
closing
the
two
eyes
:
The
finger
seems
to
leap
from
one
place
to
another
,
but
no
image
moves
across
the
space
.
INDUCED
MOTION
,
AUTOKINESIS
Stationary
visual
context
,
a
condition
mentioned
before
to
increase
motion
sensitivity
can
also
lead
to
illusions
of
motion
.
In
such
cases
,
motion
is
attributed
to
the
wrong
part
of
the
visual
display
,
for
example
,
when
the
moon
is
seen
racing
through
the
clouds
on
a
windy
night
.
The
moving
clouds
induce
motion
of
the
quasi
-
stationary
moon
(
34
)
.
Another
example
of
induced
motion
is
the
experience
that
our
train
starts
moving
while
actually
another
train
leaves
the
platform
.
When
the
induced
and
inducing
objects
are
in
close
spatial
proximity
,
the
effect
is
referred
to
as
motion
contrast
(
see
section
6
)
,
whereas
induced
motion
typically
refers
to
conditions
in
which
test
and
inducing
objects
are
spatially
separated
.
An
easy
experimental
demonstration
of
induced
motion
is
a
luminous
stationary
dot
presented
inside
a
large
,
luminous
diamond
or
circle
in
a
dark
room
(
12
-
13
,
34
)
.
When
the
circle
is
displaced
(
steadily
moved
or
successively
presented
at
two
positions
)
,
it
is
the
dot
that
will
normally
be
seen
to
move
in
opposite
direction
(
Fig
.
5
)
.
Under
both
real
and
stroboscopic
motion
conditions
,
one
of
two
stimuli
needs
to
be
larger
,
enclosing
the
other
.
If
the
larger
stimulus
is
moved
,
all
or
at
least
part
of
its
motion
is
attributed
to
the
smaller
,
enclosed
stimulus
.
The
enclosing
figure
is
presumed
to
serve
as
a
frame
of
reference
relative
to
which
the
smaller
stimulus
is
displaced
(
25
)
.
The
fact
that
smaller
objects
are
more
likely
to
move
relative
to
larger
and
enclosing
stimuli
might
reside
on
ecological
constraints
to
our
perception
.
Usually
small
objects
move
whereas
larger
objects
,
for
example
,
walls
,
trees
or
fields
in
our
environment
are
stable
.
Induced
motion
is
not
restricted
to
linear
paths
.
For
instance
,
a
patterned
stationary
disk
can
be
induced
to
rotate
by
the
rotation
of
a
surrounding
concentric
patterned
annulus
(
34
-
35
)
.
A
number
of
stimulus
variables
can
be
identified
that
reduce
or
promote
induced
motion
.
For
example
,
induced
motion
diminishes
when
the
motion
of
the
inducing
pattern
increases
in
speed
(
36
)
.
Another
critical
condition
for
induced
motion
is
that
the
frame
that
defines
the
background
and
the
enclosed
stimulus
should
be
adjacent
to
one
another
,
i
.
e
.
within
the
same
plane
and
distance
from
the
observer
.
If
the
surrounding
field
lies
too
far
in
front
of
or
behind
the
enclosed
target
,
induced
motion
falls
off
appreciably
(
37
)
.
This
finding
points
out
the
complex
interrelationship
that
exists
between
motion
and
depth
perception
.
Another
example
of
apparent
motion
is
called
autokinesis
.
This
refers
to
motion
which
is
experienced
when
fixating
on
a
stationary
point
of
light
in
an
otherwise
completely
darkened
environment
.
It
was
first
observed
by
Alexander
von
Humboldt
in
1799
with
respect
to
the
apparent
wandering
of
stars
(
35
)
.
The
key
condition
for
autokinesis
to
occur
is
the
lack
of
another
visual
reference
or
background
,
i
.
e
.
,
absolute
motion
mentioned
in
the
introduction
.
This
spatial
uncertainty
makes
the
stationary
light
drift
or
wander
irregularly
after
some
time
of
inspection
.
Typically
,
the
point
of
light
appears
to
make
small
excursions
,
but
considerable
motion
is
sometimes
noticed
.
Autokinetic
phenomena
reflect
the
role
of
eye
movements
and
resulting
efferent
motion
signals
that
produce
the
effect
of
apparent
motion
,
especially
in
the
absence
of
other
visual
cues
that
may
serve
as
a
spatial
reference
(
38
)
.
MOTION
CONTRAST
AND
ASSIMILATION
When
two
targets
travel
at
the
same
speed
against
a
field
of
dots
that
move
with
a
horizontal
gradient
of
velocity
,
the
target
which
is
traveling
faster
than
its
immediate
surround
appears
to
have
a
larger
absolute
velocity
than
the
target
which
is
traveling
slower
than
its
immediate
surround
(
39
)
.
This
phenomenon
reminds
on
brightness
contrast
and
is
analogously
referred
to
as
motion
contrast
;
it
has
been
recently
shown
to
rely
likewise
on
lateral
inhibitory
interactions
among
specialized
neuronal
detectors
(
40
)
.
Conversely
,
an
example
of
motion
assimilation
has
been
reported
by
Bressan
(
41
)
.
She
obtained
an
analog
of
brightness
assimilation
(
seen
in
the
Munker
-
White
effect
,
Fig
.
6a
)
in
the
velocity
domain
.
The
stimulus
display
consisted
of
two
sets
(
separated
by
9
.
2
°
)
of
three
horizontal
rows
each
(
Fig
.
6b
)
.
There
were
11
dots
in
each
row
,
at
a
distance
of
1
.
5
°
from
each
other
,
and
0
.
6
°
separated
neighboring
rows
within
a
set
.
Within
one
set
of
three
rows
,
the
dots
of
the
first
and
third
rows
(
flanking
rows
)
had
the
same
color
and
moved
with
the
same
velocity
a
.
The
central
row
consisted
of
three
separate
sections
;
the
dots
of
the
left
and
right
sections
(
collinear
rows
,
7
dots
each
)
had
the
same
color
as
the
dots
of
the
flanking
rows
and
moved
with
velocity
b
;
the
dots
of
the
central
section
(
test
row
,
4
dots
)
had
a
different
color
and
moved
with
velocity
c
.
The
upper
and
lower
sets
were
identical
except
for
the
fact
that
assignments
of
velocities
to
the
contextual
rows
would
always
be
reversed
:
so
if
flanking
and
collinear
rows
traveled
respectively
with
velocities
a
and
b
in
the
upper
set
,
they
would
travel
respectively
with
velocities
b
and
a
in
the
lower
set
,
and
vice
versa
.
Dots
moved
horizontally
at
a
constant
speed
across
the
screen
;
whenever
a
dot
disappeared
at
one
end
of
the
screen
a
new
dot
appeared
on
the
other
end
,
producing
a
continuous
stream
of
moving
elements
.
Velocities
a
and
b
were
fixed
at
3
°
and
9
°
/
s
,
respectively
.
The
velocities
of
the
test
rows
were
varied
across
trials
,
and
were
either
6
°
/
s
or
slightly
more
or
less
.
Observers
had
to
compare
the
apparent
velocity
of
the
two
test
rows
and
to
report
which
row
appeared
to
be
moving
faster
.
Under
these
conditions
,
the
test
row
flanked
by
high
-
speed
rows
(
Fig
.
6b
,
upper
set
)
looked
faster
not
only
when
it
actually
was
as
fast
as
the
other
,
flanked
by
low
-
speed
rows
(
Fig
.
6b
,
lower
set
)
,
but
even
when
it
was
actually
slower
(
41
)
.
In
order
to
be
perceived
as
travelling
at
the
same
speed
,
the
test
-
dot
velocity
in
the
upper
set
could
be
by
at
least
0
.
6
°
/
s
slower
than
in
the
lower
set
.
MOTION
ADAPTATION
AND
AFTEREFFECTS
Prolonged
inspection
of
a
moving
stimulus
leads
to
a
gradual
decrease
in
perceived
speed
resulting
from
motion
adaptation
.
For
example
,
a
slowly
rotating
spoke
wheel
viewed
peripherally
appears
to
slow
down
and
ultimately
come
to
an
apparent
standstill
,
although
its
physical
speed
is
unchanged
(
42
)
.
When
the
speed
of
the
wheel
is
slightly
reduced
,
the
perceived
rotation
resumes
,
but
now
in
the
opposite
direction
.
The
subsequent
effects
of
motion
adaptation
can
be
vividly
observed
if
you
stare
at
a
waterfall
for
some
time
and
then
look
at
a
stationary
scene
,
for
example
,
the
adjacent
rocks
.
The
scene
will
appear
to
be
moving
upward
.
This
is
called
the
waterfall
illusion
and
is
a
striking
example
of
a
motion
aftereffect
.
A
likely
first
explanation
of
the
waterfall
effect
first
proposed
by
Addams
in
1834
was
that
the
downward
pursuit
movements
established
in
response
to
the
water
persisted
when
the
eyes
were
turned
to
the
rocks
(
43
)
.
However
,
a
similar
aftereffect
is
obtained
if
you
watch
a
rotating
spiral
(
Fig
.
7
)
.
If
the
spiral
appears
to
shrink
or
recede
during
rotation
,
it
will
appear
to
expand
or
approach
when
the
rotation
is
suddenly
stopped
.
It
is
obvious
that
no
sort
of
eye
movements
can
account
for
the
fact
that
an
object
seems
to
expand
in
all
directions
at
once
.
Furthermore
,
as
first
demonstrated
by
Mach
and
Dvorák
in
1870
(
44
)
,
it
is
impossible
for
the
eyes
to
shrink
and
expand
at
the
same
time
as
do
the
seen
afterimages
when
adapting
to
the
rotation
of
two
concentrically
arranged
spirals
of
opposite
throw
,
see
Fig
.
7
.
Even
for
the
waterfall
illusion
,
the
eye
-
movement
explanation
is
inadequate
,
since
one
can
obtain
the
same
effect
,
at
least
in
part
of
your
visual
field
,
if
one
fixates
a
point
at
the
rock
at
one
side
of
the
fall
,
in
which
case
pursuit
eye
movements
are
excluded
(
45
)
.
Motion
aftereffects
typically
consist
on
illusory
motion
in
opposite
direction
to
previous
exposure
to
continuous
motion
in
the
same
direction
.
They
provide
evidence
that
motion
perception
is
not
merely
bound
on
stimulus
motion
and
indicate
the
dynamics
of
special
direction
-
sensitive
motion
-
units
which
are
selectively
adapted
during
stimulation
.
Cells
that
selectively
adapt
to
the
direction
of
motion
have
been
found
in
monkey
area
MT
(
46
)
.
When
stimulated
by
a
pattern
moving
in
their
preferred
direction
,
these
cells
show
a
brief
burst
of
excitation
at
motion
onset
,
followed
by
a
rapid
decrease
of
the
firing
rate
and
finally
an
"
off
"
response
at
motion
offset
that
falls
below
the
resting
discharge
which
might
be
a
correlate
of
the
seen
aftereffect
.
Electrophysiological
and
psychophysical
correlates
of
the
motion
aftereffect
have
also
been
comparatively
studied
in
man
(
47
)
.
Interestingly
,
no
motion
aftereffect
occurs
following
the
stimulation
of
the
entire
retina
by
linear
motion
(
48
)
.
In
this
case
,
however
,
a
displacement
of
sound
opposite
to
the
direction
of
visual
motion
adaptation
can
be
observed
,
suggesting
a
cross
-
modal
,
visual
-
auditory
aftereffect
(
49
)
.
Motion
aftereffects
can
also
be
obtained
from
(
and
interact
with
)
induced
motion
(
36
)
.
These
and
other
findings
(
50
)
indicate
the
existence
of
several
different
motion
aftereffects
,
depending
upon
the
site
at
which
adaptation
effects
occur
.
These
aftereffects
may
serve
as
a
tool
for
investigation
of
putative
adaptation
sites
and
sensory
mechanisms
.
MOTION
AND
SPACE
:
VELOCITY
TRANSPOSITION
The
size
of
the
target
in
proportion
to
the
size
of
the
background
affects
strikingly
its
perceived
speed
.
This
phenomenon
is
called
velocity
transposition
(
51
-
52
)
and
can
be
regarded
as
a
form
of
motion
constancy
(
53
)
.
It
takes
into
account
that
the
retinal
image
velocity
,
like
retinal
image
extent
,
is
inversely
proportional
to
the
distance
of
the
imaged
object
from
the
observer
.
Velocity
transposition
can
be
demonstrated
most
simply
by
using
two
squares
,
each
of
which
is
moved
behind
a
separate
aperture
with
the
size
proportion
of
the
squares
and
their
apertures
being
1
:
2
(
see
Fig
.
8
)
.
Observes
,
asked
to
adjust
the
velocity
of
one
display
until
it
appears
to
match
that
of
the
other
,
typically
give
an
equality
match
when
the
physical
speed
of
movement
of
the
large
aperture
is
set
at
almost
twice
the
speed
of
the
motion
of
the
small
aperture
(
25
,
52
)
.
This
general
effect
of
target
size
and
its
background
on
perceived
speed
has
been
recently
confirmed
and
further
elaborated
by
Ryan
&
Zanker
(
54
)
;
it
also
extends
to
motion
extrapolation
(
see
section
9
(
55
)
)
.
Thus
,
perceived
velocity
of
an
object
depends
on
the
relation
of
object
size
relative
to
aperture
size
as
well
as
on
its
physical
speed
in
that
it
maintains
constancy
of
an
object
'
s
velocity
despite
variations
in
its
distance
and
corresponding
retinal
projections
.
LINKING
PERCEPTION
TO
ACTION
:
MOTION
EXTRAPOLATION
More
than
any
other
stimulus
dimension
,
visual
motion
is
linked
to
motor
action
.
For
example
,
when
catching
a
ball
we
do
not
only
perceive
a
moving
object
,
but
also
most
naturally
extrapolate
this
perceptual
information
to
allow
for
advance
(
and
hence
successful
)
specification
of
corresponding
motor
acts
.
Motion
extrapolation
(
with
respect
to
the
stimulus
)
or
motion
anticipation
(
with
respect
to
the
acting
subject
)
describes
a
performance
of
a
relatively
simple
and
most
common
task
in
daily
life
.
This
performance
,
although
it
transcends
stimulus
-
bound
or
modal
perception
,
is
obviously
directly
(
perceptually
)
present
rather
than
a
result
of
indirect
cognition
.
Thus
,
extrapolation
seems
to
be
directly
linked
to
perception
with
which
it
has
been
found
to
share
common
properties
(
see
below
)
,
and
may
hence
be
best
considered
as
a
form
of
amodal
perceptual
completion
(
56
)
.
Sensory
,
modal
,
motion
perception
already
entails
some
sort
of
short
-
term
integration
in
sampling
motion
signals
over
time
in
order
to
derive
a
velocity
estimate
on
which
amodal
ways
of
motion
perception
might
be
based
in
addition
to
higher
-
order
integrative
cognitive
processes
such
as
visuo
-
spatial
forms
of
attention
and
working
memory
(
57
)
.
A
typical
motion
extrapolation
task
consists
of
presenting
a
moving
object
that
is
"
occluded
"
or
"
vanishes
"
en
route
while
approaching
another
object
or
observer
.
The
task
then
is
to
press
a
key
to
indicate
when
the
initially
visually
and
later
virtually
moving
object
reaches
the
observer
or
the
other
object
.
For
various
conditions
of
motion
presentation
,
linear
regression
is
found
to
describe
the
individual
performance
of
extrapolation
(
58
)
almost
as
appropriately
as
perceived
velocity
(
46
,
52
)
.
Motion
extrapolation
thus
might
be
considered
as
a
special
,
action
-
related
,
case
of
velocity
perception
.
For
example
,
Ehrenstein
(
59
)
used
extrapolation
of
visual
motion
to
compare
the
performance
under
afferent
and
efferent
motion
conditions
(
see
Fig
.
9
)
.
A
bright
dot
moved
horizontally
over
12
°
at
6
°
/
s
and
then
disappeared
.
Subjects
had
to
extrapolate
the
visual
motion
and
press
a
key
at
the
moment
when
the
virtual
motion
reached
at
one
of
5
extrapolation
distances
,
marked
by
LED
-
pairs
(
Fig
.
9
,
top
)
.
In
one
condition
,
subjects
had
to
fixate
the
center
of
the
respective
LED
-
pair
from
motion
onset
until
the
key
press
(
afferent
motion
)
,
in
the
other
condition
,
they
had
to
pursue
the
moving
target
with
their
eyes
and
,
when
it
disappeared
,
direct
their
gaze
to
the
given
LED
-
position
(
efferent
motion
)
.
Linear
regression
analysis
of
the
mean
extrapolation
times
(
from
motion
offset
to
key
press
)
yielded
a
high
correlation
with
extrapolation
distance
(
r
=
0
.
99
)
in
both
conditions
.
Regression
lines
,
however
,
differed
in
their
slopes
for
both
conditions
(
Fig
.
9
,
bottom
)
,
indicating
a
slower
extrapolation
velocity
for
efferent
(
4
.
2
°
/
s
)
than
afferent
(
5
.
2
°
/
s
)
motion
conditions
.
This
reduction
in
extrapolation
velocity
might
be
related
to
the
above
mentioned
Aubert
-
Fleischl
effect
.
The
underestimation
of
perceived
velocity
of
a
moving
object
during
ocular
pursuit
seems
to
extend
on
,
or
at
least
reflected
by
,
motion
extrapolation
.
Likewise
,
the
tendency
to
perceive
objects
that
move
toward
the
observer
with
a
shorter
latency
than
those
moving
away
(
centripetal
preference
(
60
)
)
is
also
found
for
extrapolation
in
that
virtual
motion
away
from
the
center
of
fixation
requires
longer
response
times
than
toward
the
center
(
61
)
.
Moreover
,
effects
of
velocity
transposition
are
analoguously
found
in
extrapolation
tasks
(
54
)
.
Thus
,
motion
extrapolation
may
be
also
regarded
and
used
as
an
alternative
method
to
reflect
and
quantify
basic
properties
of
motion
perception
.
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J
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39
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velocity
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brightness
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Li
CY
,
Lei
JJ
,
Yao
HS
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Shift
in
speed
selectivity
of
visual
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neurons
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A
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the
perception
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31
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L
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Movement
adaptation
in
the
peripheral
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Vision
Res
1984
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24
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NJ
.
A
selective
history
of
the
study
of
visual
motion
aftereffects
.
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23
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34
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44
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Broerse
J
,
Dodwell
PC
,
Ehrenstein
WH
.
Experiments
on
the
afterimages
of
stimulus
change
(
Dvorák
1870
)
:
A
translation
with
commentary
.
Perception
1994
;
23
:
1135
-
44
.
[
Medline
]
45
.
Swanston
MT
.
Frames
of
reference
and
motion
aftereffects
.
Perception
1994
;
23
:
1257
-
64
.
[
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]
47
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Wist
ER
,
Diener
HC
,
Dichgans
J
.
Motion
constancy
dependent
upon
perceived
distance
and
spatial
-
frequency
of
stimulus
pattern
.
Percept
Psychophys
1976
;
19
:
485
-
91
.
46
.
Petersen
SE
,
Baker
JF
,
Allman
JM
.
Direction
-
specific
adaptation
in
area
MT
of
the
owl
monkey
.
Brain
Research
1985
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346
:
146
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50
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48
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Reinhardt
-
Rutland
AH
.
Aftereffect
of
visual
movement
-
the
role
of
relative
movement
:
A
review
.
Curr
Psychol
Res
Rev
1987
;
6
:
275
-
88
.
49
.
Ehrenstein
WH
,
Reinhardt
-
Rutland
AH
.
A
cross
-
modal
aftereffect
:
Auditory
displacement
following
adaptation
to
visual
motion
.
Percept
Mot
Skills
1996
;
82
:
23
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6
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]
50
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Wade
NJ
,
Salvano
-
Pardieu
V
.
Visual
motion
aftereffects
:
Differential
adaptation
and
test
stimulation
.
Vision
Res
1998
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38
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573
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Brown
JF
.
Über
gesehene
Geschwindigkeiten
.
Psychol
Forschung
1928
;
10
:
84
-
101
.
52
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Brown
JF
.
The
visual
perception
of
velocity
.
Psychol
Forschung
1931
;
14
:
192
-
232
.
53
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Wist
ER
,
Gross
JD
,
Niedeggen
M
.
Motion
aftereffects
with
random
-
dot
checker
-
board
kinematograms
:
Relation
between
psychophysical
and
VEP
measures
.
Perception
1994
;
23
:
1155
-
62
.
54
.
Ryan
J
,
Zanker
JM
.
What
determines
the
perceived
speed
of
dots
moving
within
apertures
?
Exp
Brain
Res
2001
;
141
:
79
-
87
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[
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]
55
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Sokolov
AN
,
Ehrenstein
WH
,
Pavlova
MA
,
Cavonius
CR
.
Motion
extrapolation
and
velocity
transposition
.
Perception
1997
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26
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89
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[
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A
,
Thinès
G
,
Crabbé
G
.
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amodaux
des
structures
perceptives
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:
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,
1964
.
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M
,
Kincade
JM
,
Shulman
GL
.
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their
relationships
to
spatial
working
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Cognit
Neurosci
2002
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58
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N
,
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S
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WH
,
Hohnsbein
J
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extrapolation
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:
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model
approach
.
Hum
Factors
1993
;
35
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59
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Ehrenstein
WH
.
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extrapolation
and
the
Aubert
-
Fleischl
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.
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1994
;
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)
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60
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Mateeff
S
,
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N
,
Hohnsbein
J
,
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WH
,
Bohdanecky
Z
,
Radil
T
.
Selective
directional
sensitivity
in
visual
motion
perception
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Res
1991
;
31
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[
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]
61
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WH
,
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N
,
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S
,
Hohnsbein
J
,
Bohdanecky
Z
.
Centripetal
preference
in
the
perception
and
extrapolation
of
visual
motion
.
In
:
Blum
B
,
editor
,
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system
:
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;
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,
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257
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71
.
Correspondence
to
Walter
H
.
Ehrenstein
Leibniz
Research
Center
for
Working
Environment
and
Human
Factors
,
University
of
Dortmund
ArdeystraBe
67
-
D
-
44139
,
Dortmund
,
Germany
email
:
ehrenst
@
arb
-
phys
.
uni
-
dortmund
.
de
©
2006
Conselho
Brasileiro
de
Oftalmologia
Alameda
Santos
,
1343
-
11º
andar
cj
.
1110
CEP
:
01419
-
001
São
Paulo
SP
Brazil
Tel
:
11
-
3266
-
4000
Fax
:
11
-
3171
-
0953
he
most
remarkable
thing
in
a
remarkable
universe
is
so
commonplace
that
it
is
accepted
without
wonder
or
understanding
.
This
is
the
appearance
of
reality
and
solidity
that
surrounds
us
when
our
eyes
are
open
,
which
we
call
simply
vision
.
Intellectual
effort
is
required
to
realize
that
this
seeming
reality
is
within
us
,
distinct
for
each
individual
,
but
so
concordant
with
reality
and
with
each
other
,
and
so
stable
,
that
it
is
accepted
without
question
.
The
explanation
for
this
wonderful
aspect
of
consciousness
is
completely
unknown
.
The
information
that
allows
the
mind
to
create
and
maintain
this
appearance
is
collected
entirely
by
the
visual
system
.
When
the
eyes
are
closed
,
the
appearance
vanishes
.
At
least
,
it
does
for
me
.
Some
people
may
be
able
to
create
realistic
pictures
with
their
mind
'
s
eye
,
but
I
cannot
.
I
can
still
imagine
my
environment
more
or
less
accurately
,
but
the
vivid
picture
is
gone
.
The
ability
to
make
an
accurate
visual
model
of
the
external
world
is
learned
,
not
innate
.
The
necessary
materials
are
there
at
birth
,
of
course
,
but
they
must
be
trained
,
or
programmed
,
before
the
skill
is
perfected
.
This
seems
to
be
done
in
the
first
instance
by
comparing
the
chaotic
impressions
of
light
with
the
solid
evidence
of
touch
,
which
gives
the
perception
depth
and
form
.
The
visual
sense
ever
after
shows
subtle
indications
of
its
origin
in
touch
,
though
it
becomes
completely
independent
of
touch
after
perfection
.
The
ability
to
acquire
this
skill
vanishes
early
in
mental
development
.
A
person
totally
blind
from
birth
whose
vision
may
become
normal
at
a
later
age
can
never
make
sense
of
the
visual
information
and
arrange
it
in
a
consistent
manner
.
The
Chain
of
Perception
There
are
three
links
in
the
chain
of
perception
.
The
first
is
external
and
physical
:
the
propagation
of
electromagnetic
waves
from
the
object
to
the
eye
.
The
second
is
the
physical
visual
apparatus
,
from
eye
to
brain
,
consisting
of
nervous
tissue
,
although
some
important
preliminary
processing
takes
place
.
The
third
,
and
most
complex
,
is
the
interpretation
of
the
visual
stimulus
and
the
creation
of
the
internal
model
of
the
world
that
is
used
by
the
consciousness
.
In
the
third
step
,
the
visual
stimulus
received
from
outside
is
combined
with
information
from
the
memory
to
create
the
picture
.
This
is
the
most
important
part
of
vision
,
and
how
it
is
done
is
unknown
.
All
the
really
interesting
parts
of
vision
occur
here
.
The
physical
visual
system
from
eye
to
brain
has
been
studied
in
exquisite
detail
,
its
parts
examined
and
described
,
and
even
the
nerve
impulses
observed
and
measured
,
but
all
this
gives
no
satisfying
explanation
of
vision
.
It
has
been
established
,
however
,
that
important
preliminary
processing
takes
place
here
,
including
the
differencing
and
the
coding
of
stimuli
.
Coding
is
necessary
to
reduce
the
flood
of
information
to
a
manageable
amount
.
The
visual
system
has
a
bandwidth
problem
,
indeed
.
The
world
picture
must
be
constructed
from
incomplete
information
,
in
fact
inferred
from
clues
.
The
three
-
dimensional
world
is
sensed
by
the
two
-
dimensional
retina
,
emphasizing
the
central
role
of
depth
clues
.
The
picture
depends
on
the
unconscious
recognition
of
objects
,
so
that
the
remembered
properties
of
objects
can
be
transferred
to
those
they
seem
to
be
on
the
basis
of
visual
hints
.
Recognition
is
what
gives
vision
its
reality
,
showing
the
central
role
of
mind
.
Illusion
and
Hallucination
A
picture
so
assembled
on
the
basis
of
partial
information
must
be
expected
to
occasionally
be
in
error
.
The
mind
will
always
try
to
match
stimulus
and
memory
to
create
a
picture
.
It
will
make
what
seems
to
be
the
most
likely
choice
,
and
present
that
to
the
consciousness
.
An
illusion
occurs
when
the
choice
is
incorrect
.
If
a
picture
is
created
solely
from
memory
,
without
visual
stimulus
(
or
with
only
a
minimal
visual
stimulus
)
the
result
is
hallucination
,
with
which
we
shall
not
be
concerned
here
,
since
it
is
a
disorder
of
perception
,
not
a
normal
or
intended
part
of
it
.
Things
that
are
not
there
can
also
appear
in
illusion
,
it
must
be
emphasized
,
but
here
it
is
normal
.
An
illusion
can
arise
in
any
of
the
three
links
of
visual
perception
.
The
mirage
is
an
example
of
an
external
illusion
,
created
in
the
first
,
physical
link
of
light
rays
.
It
is
visually
interpreted
as
an
actual
scene
,
though
we
consciously
recognize
it
as
an
illusion
,
and
understand
its
cause
.
When
we
stare
at
a
brightly
illuminated
red
disk
for
a
time
,
then
transfer
our
attention
to
a
white
paper
,
we
see
a
green
disk
as
a
result
of
what
is
called
rather
inaccurately
fatigue
.
The
green
disk
is
an
illusion
created
in
the
second
partly
physical
,
partly
mental
link
.
When
the
full
moon
is
seen
at
the
horizon
,
it
seems
much
larger
than
when
riding
high
in
the
sky
,
though
physically
it
subtends
exactly
the
same
angle
at
the
eye
.
This
familiar
illusion
occurs
in
the
third
,
mental
link
of
vision
,
and
a
satisfying
explanation
of
it
is
unknown
.
Optical
Illusions
Illusions
occurring
in
the
third
link
are
those
most
generally
recognized
as
optical
illusions
.
Their
scientific
study
began
with
J
.
Oppel
in
Jahresberichte
des
physikalisches
Vereins
zu
Frankfurt
,
p
.
138
(
1854
)
.
Much
work
was
done
later
in
the
century
,
but
tapered
off
after
1900
,
although
the
subject
is
still
actively
researched
by
psychologists
.
Recent
work
deals
largely
with
color
and
motion
illusions
,
not
on
the
static
,
black
-
and
-
white
illusions
that
dominated
earlier
work
.
Popular
interest
in
optical
illusions
has
been
sustained
.
The
books
by
M
.
Luckeish
(
Visual
Illusions
,
1920
)
,
S
.
Tolansky
(
Optical
Illusions
,
1964
)
,
and
M
.
Fineman
(
The
Nature
of
Visual
Illusion
,
1981
)
are
evidence
of
the
continuing
fascination
.
Each
of
these
books
gives
references
to
further
information
.
All
theories
of
optical
illusion
in
the
third
link
are
mere
jejune
speculation
.
Feel
free
to
create
your
own
theories
;
they
will
be
as
valid
as
those
created
by
many
a
psychologist
!
Sometimes
a
phenomenon
is
called
an
illusion
when
it
really
is
not
,
but
is
simply
a
true
picture
of
an
unexpected
observation
.
An
example
is
the
searchlight
illusion
described
by
Luckeish
.
The
beam
of
a
bright
searchlight
is
visible
because
of
scattering
by
dust
and
fog
in
its
path
,
so
that
it
seems
practically
a
physical
object
.
When
the
beam
is
projected
up
into
the
sky
,
it
seems
to
vanish
abruptly
while
still
in
full
glory
.
When
you
look
at
this
apparent
end
of
the
beam
,
you
are
looking
in
the
direction
in
which
the
beam
is
pointed
.
If
the
beam
were
parallel
(
as
your
mind
expects
)
it
would
,
by
perspective
,
narrow
to
a
point
.
However
,
a
searchlight
beam
is
actually
more
or
less
divergent
,
fooling
this
expectation
.
It
is
only
one
'
s
mental
interpretation
that
is
an
illusion
in
this
case
,
not
the
observation
.
Stars
can
be
pointed
out
to
others
by
means
of
a
strong
laser
using
this
effect
.
If
you
view
the
searchlight
beam
from
a
distance
,
you
see
it
diverge
and
become
attenuated
,
and
perhaps
penetrating
the
layer
of
dusty
air
.
Optical
illusions
are
badly
named
,
since
they
are
not
unreal
perceptions
,
but
just
misjudgments
or
ambiguous
ones
.
The
visual
sense
does
the
best
it
can
to
interpret
the
scene
around
us
,
but
sometimes
it
fails
.
Two
of
the
most
striking
failures
are
the
stereoscopic
perception
of
solid
form
on
viewing
a
stereopair
,
and
the
appearance
of
continuous
motion
in
the
jerky
image
sequences
of
cinema
.
Both
are
pleasurable
and
desirable
failures
.
Let
us
consider
some
more
subtle
ones
in
this
article
.
I
recall
with
nostalgia
and
pleasure
the
many
times
I
have
watched
a
full
autumn
moon
rise
into
the
hazy
evening
sky
over
a
wide
eastern
horizon
.
Its
face
is
tawny
,
because
the
frequent
inversions
of
autumn
evenings
hold
the
smoke
of
burning
leaves
close
to
the
ground
.
She
looks
large
,
gigantic
,
larger
than
the
trees
and
bluffs
,
or
the
houses
and
the
highways
.
I
think
I
should
be
able
to
see
craters
and
mountains
easily
on
the
magnified
disc
,
but
I
cannot
.
Sometimes
even
the
familiar
maria
are
hard
to
make
out
.
The
disc
is
round
and
seems
perfectly
circular
,
though
I
know
it
must
be
slightly
flattened
because
of
atmospheric
refraction
.
As
she
rises
,
the
haze
is
slowly
left
behind
,
and
she
becomes
whiter
and
brighter
,
and
the
maria
now
look
sharper
.
An
hour
or
two
later
when
I
look
,
the
moon
is
hard
and
bright
and
sharp
,
again
in
her
normal
celestial
haunts
after
a
visit
to
ours
.
What
I
have
seen
is
called
the
horizon
illusion
,
known
and
remarked
from
antiquity
.
The
rising
moon
seemed
four
times
as
large
as
the
moon
in
the
zenith
.
At
first
it
seemed
close
,
almost
an
earthly
thing
,
but
later
its
celestial
nature
took
hold
.
Ptolemy
explained
that
this
was
only
apparent
;
the
objective
size
of
the
moon
was
no
different
on
the
horizon
than
in
the
zenith
.
He
said
that
although
the
celestial
sphere
was
,
indeed
,
a
sphere
,
it
appeared
farther
from
the
observer
at
the
horizon
,
and
bodies
subtending
the
same
angle
appeared
larger
when
presumed
to
be
at
a
greater
distance
.
A
man
at
1000
yards
subtending
the
same
angle
as
a
man
at
100
yards
,
would
indeed
appear
to
be
a
giant
.
It
was
the
misjudgment
of
distance
that
caused
the
illusion
.
I
feel
that
this
explanation
,
though
incomplete
and
unsatisfying
,
is
still
rather
close
to
the
best
that
can
be
said
given
our
state
of
knowledge
.
There
have
been
very
many
explanations
and
analyses
of
the
horizon
illusion
,
many
which
accept
Ptolemy
'
s
foundation
,
and
seek
to
understand
why
distances
to
the
horizon
are
misjudged
,
and
others
that
look
for
some
different
cause
.
In
fact
,
there
is
a
book
on
the
horizon
illusion
,
and
it
has
been
the
subject
of
more
scientific
papers
than
any
other
optical
illusion
.
I
will
direct
the
reader
to
this
voluminous
literature
for
a
deeper
study
,
and
only
make
some
comments
on
the
basis
of
my
own
observations
.
When
I
see
the
moon
near
the
horizon
,
it
is
clearly
behind
any
objects
I
see
there
,
clouds
as
well
as
houses
and
trees
.
Any
object
behind
another
is
farther
away
and
the
moon
is
generally
larger
than
anything
else
in
sight
in
the
distance
.
I
do
not
know
how
strong
the
illusion
is
if
,
for
example
,
the
moon
rises
behind
a
uniform
wall
relatively
close
to
me
.
I
usually
see
it
rising
over
vegetation
and
buildings
.
It
looked
remarkably
large
once
when
it
rose
behind
a
large
office
tower
about
a
mile
away
,
and
was
wider
than
that
structure
.
The
haze
and
creamy
light
help
to
make
the
moon
seem
a
terrestrial
thing
,
not
the
celestial
body
I
know
it
is
at
a
vast
distance
.
The
moon
is
,
in
fact
,
perceived
as
an
earthly
object
,
and
in
this
guise
can
only
seem
gigantic
.
Constellations
near
the
horizon
share
this
expansion
.
I
seldom
have
seen
the
moon
setting
in
the
west
in
the
dawn
,
since
I
usually
sleep
until
well
after
the
sun
is
up
.
I
have
done
so
,
however
,
and
my
memory
is
that
the
moon
appears
pale
in
the
cool
,
clear
air
.
It
seems
a
celestial
body
,
and
its
size
may
be
a
little
expanded
,
but
nothing
like
in
the
autumn
evenings
.
The
red
setting
sun
appears
quite
large
and
flattened
,
larger
than
the
dawn
moon
,
and
sunspots
are
not
visible
,
just
as
lunar
detail
is
not
visible
in
the
haze
.
In
the
clear
air
of
Wyoming
,
the
sun
sets
into
the
Laramie
Range
as
a
brilliant
ball
I
do
not
look
at
.
My
impression
from
glances
is
that
it
seems
hard
and
bright
.
I
conclude
that
the
illusion
is
variable
in
strength
,
strongest
in
hazy
air
with
subdued
illumination
,
weakest
in
limpid
air
with
bright
light
,
and
is
mainly
due
to
an
unconscious
assumption
that
the
disc
is
a
terrestrial
object
.
Some
illusions
are
caused
by
ambiguity
in
the
scene
.
In
1860
,
Sinsteden
noticed
a
remarkable
thing
about
a
windmill
seen
in
silhouette
towards
the
darkening
evening
sky
of
the
west
.
This
view
is
represented
to
the
left
.
It
is
unclear
whether
the
axis
of
the
sails
is
directed
away
from
you
or
towards
you
.
The
direction
of
rotation
of
the
sails
depends
on
which
is
the
case
.
Sinsteden
and
I
can
,
by
a
conscious
effort
,
imagine
the
scene
in
whichever
way
we
choose
,
and
if
we
switch
views
,
the
direction
of
rotation
reverses
!
This
remarkable
illusion
can
be
shown
here
through
the
magic
of
GIF
animation
.
The
absolutely
exciting
message
of
this
illusion
to
me
is
that
conscious
thought
can
change
the
perception
,
reinforcing
my
view
that
mental
processing
plays
the
essential
role
in
vision
;
everything
else
is
auxiliary
.
A
couple
of
years
earlier
,
Schroeder
had
published
a
static
ambiguous
figure
,
shown
in
the
middle
below
.
This
is
a
very
famous
illusion
,
still
often
shown
.
The
red
surface
can
either
be
to
the
front
of
the
figure
,
or
to
the
back
.
In
one
case
a
flight
of
stairs
is
shown
,
in
the
other
something
less
common
,
perhaps
stairs
seen
from
below
.
As
in
the
case
of
the
Sinsteden
illusion
,
one
can
go
from
one
interpretation
to
the
other
by
an
effort
of
will
.
There
are
many
other
such
ambiguous
figures
,
including
the
intaglio
faces
that
can
be
seen
as
faces
in
relief
.
The
drawing
procedure
called
isometric
projection
is
very
subject
to
ambiguity
,
since
perspective
gives
no
aid
.
The
figure
on
the
left
,
due
to
Zöllner
,
shows
the
effects
of
contrast
with
the
diagonal
teeth
on
the
parallel
vertical
bars
.
The
bars
seem
anything
but
parallel
!
The
method
of
drawing
this
figure
affects
the
strength
of
the
illusion
,
and
the
form
shown
is
one
of
the
strongest
.
However
,
the
illusion
occurs
to
some
degree
however
the
short
diagonal
elements
are
drawn
.
This
illusion
shows
an
error
in
estimation
.
The
lines
tend
to
become
more
parallel
if
you
concentrate
on
a
pair
of
them
,
but
there
is
always
some
tension
.
When
I
look
at
the
figure
with
both
eyes
,
I
also
get
a
stereoscopic
effect
,
as
if
it
were
corrugated
.
A
related
illusion
is
shown
at
the
left
below
,
where
it
should
be
noted
that
there
are
no
inclined
lines
at
all
.
These
patterns
should
certainly
be
avoided
in
decoration
!
One
of
the
most
frequently
mentioned
illusions
,
called
Poggendorff
'
s
illusion
,
is
shown
above
at
the
right
.
His
name
was
probably
chosen
either
to
honour
him
,
or
because
he
suggested
it
at
one
time
or
another
to
an
investigator
.
It
is
fairly
strong
in
the
case
on
the
left
.
The
diagonal
lines
meet
at
the
point
where
the
left
-
hand
side
of
the
vertical
bar
is
crossed
,
but
the
right
-
hand
lines
seem
too
low
.
It
is
usually
presented
as
shown
at
the
right
,
where
the
diagonal
lines
do
not
seem
to
be
in
the
same
straight
line
.
The
one
on
the
right
seems
too
low
.
This
tendency
has
been
taken
into
account
in
the
Union
Flag
of
the
United
Kingdom
,
where
the
red
saltire
of
St
Patrick
is
displaced
so
that
it
seems
to
be
continuous
on
both
sides
of
the
cross
of
St
George
.
This
gives
the
flag
a
definite
top
and
bottom
,
which
those
unfamiliar
with
it
usually
reverse
.
There
are
many
variants
of
Poggendorff
'
s
illusion
.
Another
illusion
of
the
same
kind
as
Zöllner
'
s
was
constructed
by
Hering
,
and
is
shown
above
in
two
forms
.
The
horizontal
parallels
are
seen
bowed
outwards
in
the
top
figure
,
and
bowed
inwards
in
the
bottom
figure
.
Below
are
two
more
geometrical
-
optical
illusions
which
came
along
later
.
In
Bourdon
'
s
,
the
horizontal
line
seems
bowed
upwards
.
I
do
not
perceive
this
illusion
distinctly
,
but
you
may
.
Different
people
do
not
have
the
same
responses
to
these
illusions
,
again
showing
the
intervention
of
the
mind
.
In
Loeb
'
s
illusion
,
the
bottom
of
the
two
parallel
lines
on
the
right
seems
a
bit
higher
than
the
top
of
the
two
parallel
lines
on
the
left
,
whereas
in
fact
the
two
are
in
the
same
straight
line
.
On
the
left
below
are
two
forms
of
the
celebrated
Müller
-
Lyer
illusion
,
in
which
two
lines
of
equal
length
seem
unequal
because
of
their
surroundings
.
In
both
cases
,
the
line
ab
is
the
same
length
as
the
line
a
'
b
'
,
which
seems
a
little
longer
.
On
the
right
is
an
illusion
due
to
Baldwin
.
The
small
cross
is
midway
between
the
two
discs
,
but
the
large
disc
seems
to
attract
it
a
little
towards
itself
.
I
do
not
find
this
a
strong
illusion
.
In
the
figure
on
the
right
,
the
vertical
line
is
the
same
length
as
the
horizontal
line
.
You
may
find
this
difficult
to
believe
,
since
the
illusion
is
so
strong
,
but
measurement
should
convince
you
.
This
is
called
the
top
hat
illusion
,
because
it
is
often
illustrated
by
a
top
hat
,
in
which
the
crown
is
as
high
as
the
brim
is
broad
,
but
looks
much
higher
.
This
illusion
gives
clear
evidence
of
the
tendency
to
over
-
estimate
vertical
distances
that
makes
hills
ahead
of
us
seem
steeper
,
and
valleys
deeper
,
than
they
actually
are
.
It
is
,
of
course
,
completely
distinct
from
the
horizon
illusion
with
which
this
paper
began
,
and
the
two
are
not
related
.
Helmholz
suggests
sketching
squares
freehand
and
then
measuring
them
to
see
how
strong
the
illusion
is
.
My
squares
tend
to
be
rather
square
,
but
there
seems
to
be
an
overestimation
of
about
1
part
in
20
.
The
figure
at
the
left
,
called
the
Kanisza
square
,
shows
that
the
impression
of
a
square
in
front
of
the
four
circles
is
one
way
the
mind
interprets
the
picture
,
which
is
really
just
four
circles
,
each
with
a
quadrant
removed
.
The
square
is
not
strongly
or
irresistibly
perceived
,
the
mind
only
offering
it
as
a
probable
explanation
for
the
figure
.
You
may
notice
that
the
mind
may
supply
ghostly
edges
to
the
square
to
separate
it
from
the
background
.
This
figure
was
used
in
recent
research
with
infants
(
Science
,
around
November
2000
)
to
find
out
the
age
at
which
different
elements
are
combined
to
form
a
recognizable
object
.
The
age
was
determined
as
about
7
months
after
birth
,
on
the
basis
of
brain
activity
recorded
electrically
.
This
demonstrates
yet
again
that
perception
is
learned
,
not
innate
.
Other
classes
of
illusions
are
concerned
with
contrasts
in
illumination
,
irradiation
,
and
very
frequently
,
with
colour
.
Some
of
these
have
physical
explanations
,
but
most
still
involve
mental
processing
.
A
practical
reason
for
studying
optical
illusions
is
to
understand
how
to
counteract
their
unwanted
effects
.
In
classical
Greek
temple
architecture
,
columns
were
expected
to
look
evenly
tapered
,
and
architraves
straight
and
level
,
to
an
observer
standing
before
the
building
.
However
,
columns
appear
slightly
concave
,
and
the
architraves
appear
to
sag
.
Therefore
,
columns
were
deliberately
made
slightly
convex
,
an
effect
called
entasis
,
and
architraves
slightly
bowed
,
to
counteract
this
tendency
.
The
displacement
of
the
saltire
of
St
Patrick
in
the
Union
Flag
is
another
example
.
Classic
Static
Illusions
Let
'
s
look
at
some
classic
static
illusions
created
by
black
-
and
-
white
figures
.
All
are
third
-
link
illusions
resulting
from
a
failure
of
estimation
,
or
from
the
faulty
comparison
of
distances
or
objects
.
In
the
bisection
illusion
,
the
vertical
line
is
the
same
length
as
the
horizontal
line
it
bisects
,
though
it
seems
about
25
%
longer
.
The
illusion
persists
if
the
figure
is
rotated
90
°
,
so
it
is
not
due
to
asymmetry
of
the
retina
,
as
one
witless
psychologist
asserted
.
In
the
Müller
-
Lyer
illusion
,
the
line
is
bisected
by
the
center
arrowhead
.
The
segment
with
the
diverging
wings
appears
longer
,
but
it
is
not
.
In
the
annulus
illusion
,
the
area
of
the
central
disk
is
equal
to
the
area
of
the
annulus
surrounding
it
,
though
it
appears
greater
.
Distance
b
-
c
in
the
lozenge
illusion
is
equal
to
distance
a
-
b
,
though
appearing
significantly
longer
.
In
the
curvature
illusion
,
all
three
arcs
have
exactly
the
same
radius
of
curvature
.
Poggendorff
'
s
illusion
is
very
famous
.
Line
2
is
actually
the
continuation
of
the
line
on
the
left
,
although
line
1
appears
to
be
.
This
illusion
is
counteracted
in
the
British
Union
Flag
by
displacing
the
arms
of
St
.
Patrick
'
s
cross
on
either
side
of
St
.
George
'
s
cross
so
they
appear
to
be
in
the
same
line
.
Greek
temples
were
designed
with
deliberate
distortions
to
make
the
building
appear
correctly
.
Columns
were
given
entasis
,
a
slight
swelling
in
the
middle
,
so
they
would
look
straight
,
and
architraves
were
cambered
up
slightly
in
the
center
so
they
would
appear
straight
.
Modern
buildings
are
not
so
sensitively
designed
.
There
is
no
satisfying
explanation
for
any
of
these
illusions
,
or
even
of
the
reasons
why
they
should
exist
.
Depth
clues
are
not
involved
in
any
of
them
,
at
least
obviously
,
or
ambiguous
or
incomplete
information
.
They
can
,
however
,
be
recognized
and
classified
,
and
have
some
practical
application
.
Ambiguous
Figures
Sometimes
a
view
may
not
contain
enough
information
for
the
mind
to
make
a
conclusive
interpretation
.
Where
there
are
only
two
reasonable
interpretations
,
the
mind
may
alternate
them
,
as
if
unable
to
make
up
its
mind
.
The
rate
of
alternation
gives
some
idea
of
the
length
of
time
between
reconsiderations
of
input
data
by
the
visual
system
,
or
of
the
operation
of
the
short
-
term
memory
that
is
so
necessary
to
avoid
overload
in
the
face
of
the
flood
of
information
bombarding
the
mind
.
In
the
ambiguous
figures
shown
,
the
one
on
the
left
can
be
interpreted
either
as
an
open
book
,
or
as
a
folded
card
with
the
fold
towards
you
.
The
cube
can
be
interpreted
either
with
the
diagonal
line
in
the
lower
left
-
hand
corner
out
of
the
page
,
or
behind
it
.
Vision
is
not
really
fooled
here
;
there
is
simply
insufficient
depth
information
for
a
conclusive
choice
.
Modifying
the
figures
to
give
better
depth
clues
,
as
shown
,
makes
the
interpretation
unique
.
In
one
case
,
the
figure
was
made
to
resemble
a
definite
object
,
an
open
book
,
and
in
the
other
hidden
lines
were
removed
to
make
the
cube
appear
solid
.
Other
Optical
Illusions
Illusions
can
also
arise
from
contrast
of
brightness
,
as
the
perception
strives
to
maintain
line
and
shade
.
The
well
-
known
illusion
shown
at
the
right
is
an
example
.
There
are
gray
patches
at
every
crossing
,
except
for
the
one
you
are
looking
at
directly
.
This
effect
is
something
to
avoid
when
designing
linoleum
.
Illusions
of
motion
and
color
are
difficult
to
illustrate
in
text
,
and
are
so
extensive
as
to
require
individual
study
.
Color
can
be
perceived
in
a
rotating
black
-
and
-
white
disc
of
suitable
pattern
,
which
is
probably
due
to
different
fatigue
characteristics
of
the
color
-
sensitive
proteins
in
the
cone
cells
of
the
retina
.
Many
color
illusions
are
due
to
physical
causes
,
because
of
the
poor
spectral
resolution
of
the
eye
,
and
differences
in
illuminants
and
pigments
.
Adaptation
,
where
the
ambient
illumination
comes
to
appear
as
white
as
possible
,
and
color
constancy
,
where
colors
are
interpreted
similiarly
under
different
conditions
of
illumination
,
are
fundamental
and
useful
properties
of
the
color
sense
,
not
illusions
.
Illusions
and
Binocular
Vision
Stereoscopic
binocular
vision
is
a
remarkable
facility
that
provides
many
interesting
illusions
,
mostly
useful
and
entertaining
ones
.
When
both
eyes
are
fixated
on
the
same
nearby
object
,
the
images
on
the
two
retinas
are
not
identical
and
conflict
,
since
each
eye
sees
the
object
from
a
different
position
.
Detecting
the
conflict
,
the
mind
checks
to
see
if
the
conflict
can
be
explained
by
the
different
positions
of
the
eyes
,
and
if
so
,
immediately
interprets
the
object
as
located
in
the
proper
position
in
space
.
The
two
images
are
then
said
to
have
fused
.
Of
all
depth
clues
,
the
mind
regards
stereoscopy
as
superior
,
overriding
all
other
clues
.
Stereoscopic
vision
is
most
effective
in
the
same
regions
as
human
hands
work
,
and
must
be
considered
predominantly
as
an
aid
to
such
activities
.
Accommodation
and
convergence
of
the
axes
of
vision
may
play
a
part
in
stereoscopy
,
but
image
conflict
is
the
primary
cause
,
as
was
realized
by
Charles
Wheatstone
,
the
first
to
study
stereoscopy
around
1838
.
When
the
conflicting
images
cannot
be
explained
in
this
way
,
rivalry
occurs
instead
of
fusion
,
resulting
in
rejection
of
one
image
,
alternation
of
images
,
or
double
vision
.
When
sufficiently
addled
by
alcohol
,
the
mind
may
not
feel
like
exerting
the
effort
required
for
fusion
.
When
the
image
in
one
eye
is
markedly
poorer
than
the
image
in
the
other
,
it
is
usually
suppressed
,
and
the
image
from
the
good
eye
governs
.
If
red
is
presented
to
one
eye
,
and
green
to
the
other
,
rivalry
results
,
in
my
perception
,
in
an
intermediate
state
than
cannot
be
described
as
either
color
or
any
mixture
of
them
.
This
allows
stereoscopic
views
to
be
presented
to
the
eyes
separated
by
colored
lenses
without
color
conflict
.
The
stereoscopic
illusion
is
the
fusion
of
two
scenes
presented
separately
to
the
two
eyes
into
one
three
-
dimensional
scene
.
The
feeling
of
three
dimensions
is
very
strong
,
so
that
viewing
such
stereopairs
is
quite
pleasant
.
When
the
two
views
are
printed
on
a
page
about
65
mm
apart
,
a
normal
interocular
distance
,
a
trained
observer
can
fuse
them
by
simply
diverging
her
optic
axes
as
if
viewing
a
distant
object
.
When
this
is
done
,
the
fused
image
appears
between
the
two
original
images
,
so
three
images
are
actually
seen
.
This
is
more
easily
done
by
the
older
observer
,
since
accommodation
of
the
eye
does
not
hinder
fusion
when
the
axes
are
diverged
.
To
allow
larger
stereopairs
,
and
to
help
untrained
observers
,
stereoscopes
using
prisms
and
lenses
were
invented
.
The
common
stereoscope
was
invented
by
David
Brewster
,
and
has
now
been
reduced
to
spectacles
with
prism
lenses
.
If
the
two
scenes
are
presented
in
different
colors
,
they
can
be
printed
on
the
same
surface
and
separated
by
glasses
with
colored
lenses
,
as
mentioned
above
.
Such
stereopairs
are
called
anaglyphs
.
The
strength
and
independence
of
the
stereoscopic
facility
is
shown
by
the
lately
-
discovered
fact
that
it
is
fully
effective
even
when
an
object
cannot
be
recognized
,
provided
only
that
corresponding
points
can
be
identified
in
the
two
views
.
A
stereopair
can
be
made
with
random
dots
,
identical
except
for
small
displacements
that
would
occur
if
they
were
located
on
a
three
-
dimensional
surface
.
Such
pairs
can
be
fused
,
and
the
shape
of
the
imaginary
surface
made
visible
in
three
dimensions
.
This
clearly
shows
that
memory
plays
no
essential
role
in
stereoscopy
,
in
contrast
to
the
major
role
it
plays
in
all
other
visual
interpretation
.
Autostereograms
A
related
type
of
stereogram
consists
of
cunningly
arranged
areas
in
a
single
picture
,
often
only
small
dots
,
such
that
each
area
does
double
duty
,
as
a
point
of
an
object
for
each
eye
at
the
same
time
,
but
on
different
objects
.
These
stereograms
fuse
when
the
optic
axes
are
made
parallel
,
so
the
areas
do
their
intended
double
duty
.
The
picture
appears
only
upon
fusion
,
and
cannot
be
perceived
in
advance
.
The
same
thing
happens
if
the
optic
axes
are
over
-
converged
,
but
the
stereoscopic
effect
is
inverted
(
depth
is
reversed
)
.
These
single
-
image
random
-
dot
stereograms
are
generally
called
autostereograms
.
These
stereograms
attracted
great
public
interest
in
the
early
1990
'
s
,
when
they
were
published
in
newspapers
and
books
,
and
even
appeared
in
outdoor
advertising
.
Viewing
autostereograms
is
excellent
practice
for
learning
how
to
fuse
stereograms
without
aid
,
called
free
fusion
.
Camouflage
Tricking
the
eye
into
recognizing
one
thing
while
observing
another
is
often
very
useful
to
living
things
.
There
are
three
different
ways
to
do
this
.
First
,
one
might
mimic
something
dangerous
or
nasty
-
tasting
,
as
does
the
fly
who
resembles
a
wasp
,
a
brightly
-
colored
butterfly
,
or
an
armed
,
uniformed
policeman
.
Another
way
is
to
merge
with
the
background
,
as
do
moths
,
stick
insects
,
tabby
cats
,
or
wealthy
people
wearing
old
clothes
in
the
street
.
An
interesting
way
to
do
this
is
to
break
up
a
familiar
outline
by
a
contrasting
pattern
.
Warships
were
painted
in
bold
,
zig
-
zag
patterns
in
the
First
World
War
for
this
purpose
.
The
patterns
did
indeed
break
up
the
outline
when
you
were
close
enough
to
see
that
they
were
ships
,
but
at
large
distances
aerial
perspective
(
blue
haze
)
smoothed
the
pattern
,
revealing
again
that
they
were
ships
.
The
third
way
is
to
look
like
something
else
.
Cylindrical
snakes
and
lizards
are
dark
on
top
and
light
on
the
bottom
,
contrary
to
the
normal
modelling
of
a
cylinder
,
so
they
resemble
flat
objects
containing
no
meat
.
Deliberate
Illusions
A
picture
drawn
on
a
flat
background
is
an
attempt
to
trick
the
eye
into
perceiving
a
three
-
dimensional
scene
.
This
is
very
effective
,
since
the
eye
must
do
something
similar
in
its
normal
functioning
,
becauseerful
is
perspective
drawing
.
In
moving
pictures
,
the
mind
interprets
the
succession
of
static
frames
as
continuous
motion
,
again
something
it
must
do
in
its
normal
functioning
.
There
must
be
a
temporal
element
in
sensing
a
changing
world
,
which
is
revealed
by
the
flicker
frequency
,
the
rate
above
which
continuous
motion
is
perceived
instead
of
jumps
,
of
about
20
to
30
Hz
.
We
are
very
thankful
for
these
illusions
(
if
we
realize
what
they
are
)
and
are
glad
to
have
them
.
Conjurors
,
three
-
card
monte
men
,
swindlers
,
mediums
,
priests
,
and
others
interested
in
influencing
people
sometimes
make
effective
use
of
visual
(
and
other
)
illusion
.
Stage
magicians
who
are
only
concerned
with
entertainment
call
themselves
illusionists
to
make
it
clear
what
they
do
,
and
to
distinguish
themselves
from
those
who
ascribe
their
wonders
to
spirits
or
chemicals
.
Illusionists
,
and
the
the
other
sorts
of
entrepreneurs
,
mainly
use
other
kinds
of
illusions
,
but
optical
illusions
are
not
ruled
out
.
These
procedures
have
been
perfected
through
centuries
and
even
millenia
of
profitable
use
,
and
remain
evergreen
owing
to
the
continuous
copious
production
of
fools
.
Final
Remarks
A
curious
illusion
shows
how
the
mind
does
its
best
to
interpret
its
data
.
Fixate
on
a
finger
resting
on
a
book
at
normal
reading
distance
from
your
eyes
.
Now
move
the
finger
toward
your
eyes
,
keeping
your
fixatin
on
the
page
of
the
book
.
As
soon
as
your
finger
is
far
enough
from
the
page
that
what
is
obscured
from
the
right
eye
is
seen
by
the
left
,
and
vice
-
versa
,
it
will
become
transparent
,
and
you
will
see
the
book
unobstructed
by
the
finger
.
The
finger
is
surely
there
,
right
in
the
way
,
but
it
is
suppressed
,
probably
because
your
fixation
shows
you
are
looking
at
the
book
,
not
the
finger
.
Illusions
show
that
visual
perception
is
much
more
complicated
than
was
ever
imagined
in
primitive
views
of
it
.
One
early
view
interpreted
sight
as
touching
by
visual
rays
from
the
eye
in
the
presence
of
activating
rays
from
the
source
of
light
.
More
recently
,
the
eye
was
perceived
as
a
camera
making
a
picture
that
was
viewed
somehow
by
the
brain
.
The
most
interesting
aspects
of
vision
are
,
however
,
yet
unexplained
.
References
M
.
Hershenson
(
editor
)
,
The
Moon
Illusion
(
Hillsdale
,
NJ
:
Lawrence
Erlbaum
Associates
,
1989
)
shows
that
the
horizon
illusion
has
not
lost
its
fascination
.
Note
the
title
,
which
may
lead
the
unwary
to
assume
that
it
deals
only
with
the
moon
.
For
a
bibliography
of
work
on
optical
illusions
up
to
1924
,
and
especially
the
horizon
illusion
,
see
H
.
v
.
Helmholtz
,
Handbuch
der
Physiologischen
Optik
(
New
York
:
Dover
,
1962
)
vol
.
III
,
p
.
364
-
369
.
M
.
Luckeish
,
Visual
Illusions
(
New
York
:
Dover
,
1965
)
.
A
reissue
of
the
original
of
1915
.
A
good
survey
,
and
widely
available
.
S
.
Tolansky
,
Optical
Illusions
(
Oxford
:
Pergamon
Press
,
1964
)
C
.
H
.
Paraquin
,
The
World
'
s
Best
Optical
Illusions
(
New
York
:
Sterling
Publ
.
Co
.
,
1987
)
M
.
Fineman
,
The
Nature
of
Visual
Illusion
(
Mineola
,
NY
:
Dover
Publ
.
,
1981
)
To
Know
more
Eyetricks
.
com
-
site
devoted
to
optical
illusions
,
3D
stereograms
,
online
games
and
other
mind
-
teasing
oddities
.
The
Principles
of
Artistic
Illusions
-
from
Escher
to
Penrose
to
Thiery
and
more
.
Visual
Illusions
Gallery
-
presents
illusory
stimuli
,
with
added
hypertext
and
graphical
material
relevant
to
students
studying
sensation
,
perception
,
or
research
methods
.
The
Senses
:
The
senses
have
common
properties
and
origins
The
Eye
and
Visual
Perception
:
How
vision
works
Stereopsis
:
3D
from
Wheatstone
to
the
Autostereogram
Anomalous
Colour
Vision
:
Why
some
people
have
different
color
perception
Haidinger
'
s
Brush
:
The
Eye
Is
Sensitive
To
Polarization
The
Horizon
Illusion
:
A
Clear
Explanation
Is
Still
Lacking
The
Searchlight
Illusion
:
An
Error
of
Interpretation
Amazing
Optical
Illusions
-
pick
your
favorite
optical
illusion
Optics
and
Visual
Perception
The
Author
James
.
B
.
Calvert
Associate
Professor
Emeritus
of
Engineering
,
University
of
Denver
,
Denver
,
CO
,
USA
.
jcalvert
@
du
.
edu
This
paper
is
a
composition
of
two
original
papers
published
by
Dr
.
Calvert
in
his
site
:
Antônio
Luís
de
Miranda
Ferreira
e
Denis
A
.
Daniel
-
Coordenadores
With
each
new
year
begins
the
round
of
planning
for
the
Rio
Legal
Committee
s
(
RCL
)
calendar
of
activities
,
covering
lunch
-
time
talks
,
articles
,
newsletters
,
workshops
,
seminars
and
events
,
both
national
and
international
.
In
2006
the
RLC
faces
a
double
challenge
;
as
well
as
planning
for
a
successful
year
,
a
handing
over
of
roles
is
due
to
take
place
.
The
transition
we
are
speaking
of
is
that
of
the
Presidency
of
the
Rio
Legal
Committee
,
which
Dr
.
Denis
Daniel
initiated
six
years
ago
with
the
first
luncheon
meeting
on
January
27th
2000
.
The
new
incumbent
is
Antônio
Luís
de
Miranda
Ferreira
,
partner
of
the
Machado
,
Meyer
,
Sendacz
e
Opice
Law
Offices
and
former
Legal
Director
of
Shell
Brasil
.
The
challenge
of
the
RCL
has
always
been
to
combine
topical
,
interesting
issues
with
speakers
from
all
walks
of
the
legal
profession
,
who
can
variously
shed
new
light
on
the
subject
at
hand
,
succinctly
sum
up
the
differing
points
of
view
,
and
through
their
experience
bring
a
wider
legal
,
political
or
historical
perspective
to
bear
.
Top
speakers
and
relevant
topics
,
brought
together
within
a
framework
stamped
with
British
punctuality
(
always
12
:
15
p
.
m
.
to
2
:
00
p
.
m
.
)
,
have
guaranteed
that
RLC
participants
come
to
the
meetings
in
the
knowledge
that
they
will
be
educated
,
entertained
,
watered
and
fed
and
subsequently
dispatched
back
to
their
business
within
a
predictable
timeframe
.
A
centralized
downtown
location
permits
most
participants
to
dispense
with
motorized
transport
.
The
lunch
-
time
talks
serve
as
the
primary
source
for
the
RLC
Newsletter
,
which
appears
as
a
bilingual
pull
-
out
in
every
Britcham
magazine
.
Back
issues
of
the
RLC
Newsletters
are
to
be
found
on
the
Chamber
s
official
website
or
available
from
the
Chamber
Office
.
Some
of
these
articles
,
which
also
include
comparative
studies
,
have
covered
topics
such
as
Binding
Decisions
,
Foreign
Law
Firms
in
Brazil
,
Protection
of
Minority
Shareholders
in
Britain
and
Brazil
,
The
Crime
of
Unlawful
Tax
Demands
,
Mediation
-
How
to
Avoid
Court
Disputes
,
Lawyers
Being
Sued
by
Clients
?
,
Simple
(
limited
)
Companies
and
the
New
Civil
Law
,
Banking
Confidentiality
under
British
and
Brazilian
Law
,
Preventative
Injunction
,
Contracts
and
the
New
Civil
Code
,
Reform
of
the
Judiciary
,
The
ISS
and
the
Liberal
Professional
,
Current
Status
of
Public
Private
Partnerships
,
The
Role
of
Legal
Departments
in
Major
Corporations
and
the
Relationship
with
Outside
Counsel
,
The
Reform
of
the
Judiciary
and
the
Role
of
the
Lawyers
in
the
Advancement
of
Decision
Rendering
,
and
The
New
Legal
Directives
of
the
Regulatory
Agencies
.
The
RLC
has
provided
and
will
certainly
continue
to
provide
a
forum
for
prominent
legal
professionals
to
meet
.
One
of
the
main
objectives
of
the
RLC
is
to
offer
informative
,
stimulating
and
useful
events
relating
to
British
and
Brazilian
legal
matters
that
could
be
of
interest
to
lawyers
and
to
members
of
the
Chamber
as
a
whole
.
A
further
aim
is
to
make
known
to
Chamber
members
the
representatives
of
law
firms
in
Rio
that
specialize
in
different
areas
of
practice
.
A
further
stimulus
for
participants
of
the
RLC
meetings
is
that
articles
produced
by
lawyers
are
placed
on
the
Britcham
site
in
the
RLC
section
.
Members
can
refer
their
clients
to
the
site
,
where
they
will
find
legal
opinions
showing
tightly
reasoned
arguments
and
sometimes
hard
-
hitting
conclusions
.
In
2005
the
RLC
focused
on
major
issues
such
as
Public
-
Private
Partnerships
(
PPP
s
)
,
Bankruptcy
Law
and
other
topics
that
are
of
interest
to
the
law
profession
and
to
the
business
community
at
large
.
The
same
year
also
saw
the
beginning
of
a
series
of
legal
workshops
of
an
essentially
technical
/
educational
nature
.
These
are
short
workshops
of
three
to
four
hours
,
usually
held
in
the
morning
and
have
proven
to
be
very
useful
for
the
developing
of
junior
staff
in
law
firms
in
Rio
.
In
2006
the
RLC
will
continue
to
follow
the
successful
formula
of
lunch
-
time
talks
and
technical
/
educational
workshops
,
focusing
on
major
legal
issues
.
Special
attention
will
be
given
to
legislation
reform
and
development
,
mainly
taking
into
account
the
themes
that
will
certainly
be
part
of
the
political
agenda
of
the
new
government
to
be
inaugurated
at
the
beginning
of
2007
.
In
this
sense
,
the
possibilities
of
the
RCL
to
serve
as
a
permanent
forum
for
the
relevant
discussions
will
be
explored
.
The
RLC
has
counted
and
will
certainly
continue
to
count
on
the
efforts
and
dedication
of
its
members
,
a
brilliant
group
of
lawyers
and
professionals
from
various
areas
that
have
been
fundamental
for
its
development
.
To
all
of
them
the
RLC
credits
the
high
quality
of
the
events
,
the
most
enjoyable
and
friendly
atmosphere
and
the
prestige
that
has
been
achieved
by
the
Committee
amongst
the
legal
community
in
Rio
.
E
lectrostatic
machines
are
electromechanical
devices
that
produce
"
static
electricity
"
,
or
electricity
at
continuous
(
DC
)
high
voltage
.
They
were
fundamental
in
the
early
studies
about
electricity
,
started
in
the
XVII
century
,
in
the
form
of
"
friction
machines
"
,
and
their
development
culminated
at
the
end
of
the
XIX
century
with
the
development
of
powerful
"
influence
machines
"
.
Today
,
some
specialized
uses
for
them
continue
to
exist
,
but
they
are
mostly
seen
as
demonstration
devices
in
physics
laboratories
,
with
much
of
their
history
forgotten
.
I
started
experimenting
with
these
machines
by
1973
,
building
a
first
series
of
machines
.
With
this
I
learned
a
lot
about
electricity
,
and
I
still
think
that
all
people
interested
in
electricity
or
electronics
shall
try
these
machines
to
get
a
real
feel
of
the
subject
.
At
least
,
high
voltage
static
electricity
is
something
that
you
can
see
and
feel
.
Eventually
I
abandoned
the
subject
for
several
years
,
but
in
1996
I
renewed
my
interest
in
this
subject
,
started
to
study
and
build
new
machines
,
and
set
up
these
pages
.
Below
are
pictures
and
descriptions
of
my
old
machines
,
of
machines
that
I
built
more
recently
,
of
machines
built
by
others
,
pictures
from
old
books
and
papers
related
to
electrostatic
machines
and
other
high
-
voltage
devices
,
and
also
some
pictures
from
museums
.
There
are
also
extensive
references
,
covering
classical
and
new
materials
.
This
site
is
always
in
construction
.
I
plan
to
add
more
details
about
the
machines
depicted
and
historical
material
,
as
soon
as
I
find
or
receive
more
data
from
interested
people
,
build
and
experiment
with
new
machines
,
and
have
time
.
Está
também
disponível
uma
seção
em
português
.
To
navigate
through
this
site
efficiently
,
use
the
"
open
link
in
a
new
window
"
function
of
your
browser
to
see
the
pictures
in
the
links
,
and
use
its
search
function
for
searching
.
Recent
changes
.
"
Ignis
ubique
latet
,
naturam
amplectitur
omnem
"
Machines
of
Toepler
,
Bonetti
,
Voss
,
Bohnenberger
,
and
Nicholson
My
machines
A
Wimshurst
machine
[
1
]
[
2
]
that
I
built
in
1974
.
Front
view
,
back
view
,
and
with
two
Leyden
jars
.
A
schematic
diagram
,
with
the
disks
represented
as
cylinders
,
and
a
description
of
how
the
Wimshurst
machine
works
.
A
Ramsden
friction
machine
[
2
]
,
built
in
1975
.
Small
(
18
cm
acrylic
disk
)
,
but
useful
to
test
the
insulation
of
materials
and
for
for
starting
the
influence
machines
in
humid
days
.
A
Lebiez
machine
,
or
simplified
Voss
machine
[
p31
]
,
in
front
view
and
in
back
view
.
Built
in
1975
as
a
kind
of
Voss
machine
,
and
rebuilt
in
1996
in
this
form
.
Schematic
diagram
,
with
cylinders
instead
of
disks
for
my
machine
.
This
machine
is
equivalent
to
Lord
Kelvin
'
s
"
replenisher
"
(
see
below
)
,
with
better
insulation
.
The
classic
Voss
machine
,
also
known
as
Toepler
-
Holtz
machine
,
is
better
and
is
built
in
this
way
,
with
charge
collectors
and
inductor
plates
separated
.
A
possible
similar
true
Voss
machine
is
shown
here
and
here
.
A
small
cylindric
simplified
Voss
machine
built
in
1997
,
with
the
same
structure
of
the
previous
machine
.
Side
view
,
and
another
view
.
It
is
similar
to
a
Dirod
machine
[
10
]
.
A
symmetrical
2
disks
Toepler
machine
[
4
]
,
with
some
modifications
,
built
in
1997
.
Side
view
,
another
view
.
A
drawing
.
A
schematic
diagram
,
with
the
disks
shown
as
cylinders
.
This
machine
has
excellent
performance
,
and
can
generate
higher
voltage
and
even
more
current
than
a
conventional
Wimshurst
machine
with
the
same
disk
size
.
In
1999
,
I
built
a
larger
machine
.
Look
at
the
bottom
of
the
page
here
for
a
description
.
The
first
classic
Toepler
machine
(
1865
)
was
built
in
this
way
[
4
]
[
9
]
,
with
a
different
interconnection
and
disks
with
two
sectors
only
.
Toepler
described
also
a
symmetrical
machine
(
1866
)
that
is
very
similar
to
my
machine
(
the
picture
shows
a
sectorless
machine
and
a
similar
device
used
as
voltage
multiplier
)
.
schematic
diagram
[
p39
]
.
My
first
sectorless
Wimshurst
machine
,
or
Bonetti
machine
[
4
]
[
5
]
[
8
]
(
ray
-
tracing
drawing
)
,
built
in
1997
,
with
31
cm
disks
.
A
drawing
.
Another
view
.
Pictures
of
the
actual
machine
,
in
front
view
,
and
back
view
.
A
detail
of
the
charge
collectors
and
neutralizers
.
Pictures
(
video
frames
)
of
sparks
from
this
machine
:
A
short
spark
,
a
long
spark
with
a
loop
,
and
a
longer
one
.
The
original
Bonetti
machine
(
1894
)
[
31
]
used
series
of
brushes
as
neutralizers
instead
of
combs
.
A
Holtz
machine
[
2
]
[
4
]
-
[
7
]
of
the
first
kind
,
that
I
built
in
1997
.
A
drawing
.
Another
view
,
and
a
schematic
diagram
.
Pictures
of
the
actual
machine
,
in
front
view
,
and
back
view
.
This
machine
was
the
first
really
powerful
influence
machine
,
invented
in
1865
,
and
was
very
popular
,
even
requiring
external
excitation
to
start
.
An
apparently
complete
actual
machine
is
here
.
Some
additional
pictures
,
from
books
by
H
.
Pellat
:
A
Holtz
machine
[
6
]
(
the
fixed
disk
is
in
a
wrong
position
)
,
a
better
picture
[
7
]
,
a
double
Holtz
machine
[
6
]
[
7
]
,
and
a
machine
with
neutralizer
and
friction
starter
[
6
]
[
7
]
.
And
another
good
picture
[
14
]
.
This
picture
shows
a
machine
with
a
more
modern
structure
[
22
]
.
A
multiple
machine
[
24
]
.
Here
is
a
picture
of
the
Holtz
machine
of
the
second
kind
,
that
uses
two
counter
-
rotating
disks
,
as
the
Wimshurst
and
Bonetti
machines
.
A
drawing
of
a
possible
machine
.
The
Leyser
machine
(
1873
)
[
4
]
[
19
]
,
is
variation
of
the
Holtz
machine
with
the
output
taken
at
positions
that
would
be
under
the
inductor
plates
in
the
regular
machine
,
and
the
neutralizer
bar
where
the
original
output
circuit
would
be
.
This
is
the
schematic
diagram
of
the
machine
,
with
a
cylinder
instead
of
the
disk
.
This
is
a
different
design
due
to
Weinhold
(
1887
)
,
with
wood
inductors
and
no
insulating
plate
[
19
]
.
This
diagram
[
19
]
shows
how
it
operates
.
Initial
plans
for
a
machine
that
I
have
built
are
here
,
in
front
view
and
back
view
.
The
version
that
actually
worked
was
somewhat
different
.
A
double
Voss
machine
,
or
double
Toepler
-
Holtz
machine
,
with
classical
structure
,
built
in
1998
.
A
drawing
,
and
a
photo
of
the
machine
.
This
is
a
good
self
-
exciting
machine
,
invented
in
1880
.
With
27
cm
rotating
disks
,
it
produces
sparks
with
up
to
10
cm
and
more
than
50
uA
of
short
-
circuit
current
.
A
Bohnenberger
machine
(
1798
)
[
4
]
,
that
I
built
in
1998
.
A
drawing
,
and
a
picture
of
the
machine
.
An
ancient
machine
of
the
"
doubler
"
type
,
it
is
not
a
powerful
machine
,
but
is
very
interesting
.
See
more
about
"
doublers
"
in
the
section
about
influence
machines
below
.
In
June
1999
I
made
experiments
with
a
bipolar
Van
de
Graaff
generator
,
(
drawing
)
similar
to
the
original
machine
,
but
smaller
.
This
is
a
large
Bonetti
machine
,
that
I
started
to
build
in
December
1999
.
The
disks
are
old
ebonite
disks
that
come
with
the
Radiguet
&
Massiot
Bonetti
machine
that
I
recently
restored
.
A
drawing
of
it
.
Front
view
,
and
back
view
.
Another
view
of
it
,
and
another
.
Some
sparks
,
that
may
reach
20
cm
..
In
April
2000
I
finished
a
Wimshurst
triplex
machine
.
(
drawing
)
.
It
'
s
a
double
Wimshurst
machine
,
using
the
close
proximity
between
the
central
disks
to
increase
the
output
current
,
through
greater
induction
and
mutual
shielding
.
Pictures
of
the
machine
,
in
front
view
,
back
view
,
and
side
view
.
The
machine
produces
a
high
current
(
100
uA
with
the
36
.
5
cm
disks
rotating
at
16
turns
per
second
,
4
times
more
than
a
single
Wimshurst
machine
with
the
same
disks
)
.
With
the
original
design
,
it
reached
only
8
-
12
cm
sparks
,
eventually
reaching
14
or
15
cm
on
dry
days
,
because
with
the
rather
small
separation
of
the
sectors
it
easily
sparked
through
them
and
the
neutralizer
bars
.
With
half
of
the
sectors
removed
,
it
produces
consistent
15
cm
sparks
.
By
the
same
time
,
I
made
also
a
working
version
of
Bennet
'
s
doubler
,
a
curious
simple
influence
machine
.
In
August
2000
I
made
a
version
of
Nicholson
'
s
doubler
,
the
first
automatic
influence
machine
(
1788
)
.
In
January
2001
I
completed
a
double
Wommelsdorf
machine
,
following
closely
the
original
design
of
[
p84
]
(
1920
)
,
but
with
modern
materials
.
Front
view
,
and
back
view
.
A
collection
of
parts
.
Partial
assembly
.
Assembling
the
neutralizer
.
Neutralizer
and
other
details
assembled
.
Back
view
.
The
machine
,
almost
complete
.
Back
.
The
disks
,
and
the
switches
.
The
complete
machine
.
back
view
,
side
view
,
other
side
,
and
another
view
,
with
only
painting
missing
.
The
machine
works
quite
well
(
13
.
5
cm
sparks
,
100
uA
current
)
for
the
two
28
cm
disks
.
In
March
2001
I
made
a
curious
AC
electrostatic
machine
,
apparently
new
,
that
I
named
as
"
half
Wimshurst
machine
"
.
And
by
April
2001
I
extended
the
same
idea
to
a
three
-
disks
machine
,
that
I
named
as
"
unfolded
Wimshurst
machine
"
.
A
Wehrsen
machine
,
completed
in
April
2002
.
It
is
a
prototype
for
a
large
Wehrsen
machine
(
see
below
)
,
that
I
started
to
build
in
August
2001
.
Some
parts
for
it
at
the
start
of
the
construction
.
Almost
complete
,
by
March
2002
.
Back
view
.
Working
,
it
performs
quite
well
,
with
11
cm
sparks
and
70
µA
of
short
-
circuit
current
.
An
electrostatic
linear
motor
,
completed
in
January
2002
.
A
large
Wehrsen
machine
,
first
tested
by
August
2003
.
Almost
complete
by
July
2003
.
Another
view
,
back
view
.
Ray
-
tracing
picture
.
Just
before
the
first
test
.
First
test
.
The
machine
is
still
without
its
definitive
rotating
disk
due
to
construction
and
insulation
difficulties
.
This
is
a
Toepler
-
Dirod
machine
that
I
was
building
by
March
2004
,
still
without
spark
terminals
,
and
with
terminals
.
It
'
s
connected
as
the
symmetrical
Toepler
machine
,
but
uses
Dirod
-
type
disks
.
A
drawing
of
the
final
machine
.
The
machine
works
,
but
is
weak
.
Bohnenberger
'
s
Bennet
'
s
doubler
.
A
curious
little
machine
that
I
built
in
April
2004
.
Bohnenberger
'
s
Nicholson
'
s
doubler
.
A
version
of
Nicholson
'
s
doubler
with
back
-
and
-
forth
movement
,
built
in
May
2004
.
So
far
not
so
good
as
the
other
doublers
.
See
also
the
comments
about
machines
that
I
have
restored
,
in
the
section
about
influence
machines
below
.
Machines
built
by
others
A
big
Wimshurst
machine
built
by
Jim
Banas
.
A
sectorless
Wimshurst
machine
with
60
cm
disks
.
This
machine
was
built
by
Ed
Wingate
.
A
spark
from
this
machine
.
Another
sectorless
Wimshurst
machine
,
with
30
cm
disks
.
Similar
to
the
one
described
by
R
.
A
.
Ford
in
[
8
]
.
A
more
recent
picture
.
Side
and
base
view
.
Neutralizers
,
Charge
collectors
.
Another
view
.
This
machine
was
built
by
J
.
Hardesty
and
Ed
Wingate
.
Photos
sent
by
Steve
Cole
.
An
old
Wimshurst
machine
repaired
by
Johannes
Zolk
in
1996
,
with
the
original
broken
disks
replaced
by
LP
records
,
with
good
results
.
Front
view
,
and
back
view
.
Photos
sent
by
J
.
Zolk
.
A
"
shake
-
sphere
"
machine
[
10
]
,
built
by
Joachim
Bolz
and
his
students
in
1997
.
It
is
an
influence
machine
using
two
balls
in
a
tube
,
moved
by
shaking
the
tube
,
instead
of
disks
.
It
works
as
my
Toepler
machine
above
.
An
schematic
diagram
of
it
.
Photo
and
drawing
by
J
.
Bolz
.
Operation
of
the
machine
.
Complete
plans
for
a
beautiful
Wimshurst
machine
,
built
by
J
.
M
.
S
.
van
Gelderen
in
1997
.
Plans
for
the
disks
,
a
top
view
,
a
back
view
,
a
side
view
,
and
details
of
the
terminals
and
Leyden
jars
.
Pictures
from
the
machine
,
seen
from
the
front
and
back
sides
,
and
from
above
here
and
here
.
Ricardo
"
Rike
"
built
this
Wimshurst
machine
in
1997
,
using
LP
records
for
the
disks
.
It
produces
7
cm
sparks
.
Another
view
.
A
beautiful
large
Wimshurst
machine
(
40
cm
disks
)
,
built
by
James
T
.
Garavuso
in
1998
.
A
frontal
view
,
another
,
a
side
view
,
a
back
view
with
the
terminals
in
storage
position
,
another
,
and
a
view
from
above
.
Details
if
the
charge
collectors
,
neutralizers
,
and
secondary
spark
gap
.
This
machine
produces
12
cm
sparks
.
A
Toepler
machine
,
built
by
Maximiliano
Guzman
,
from
Spain
,
in
1998
.
The
disks
have
27
cm
of
diameter
.
A
later
version
used
larger
shields
and
a
speed
multiplier
in
the
crank
.
A
Wimshurst
machine
,
built
by
Raymond
Zaborski
,
from
the
USA
,
in
1999
.
The
small
intersector
distance
and
the
neutralizers
at
low
angle
result
in
intense
current
and
easy
self
-
excitation
,
but
relatively
small
spark
length
.
A
big
motorized
Bonetti
machine
,
built
by
Emery
Wayman
,
from
the
USA
,
in
1999
.
The
machines
has
disks
with
61
cm
of
diameter
,
and
produces
sparks
with
up
to
28
cm
of
length
.
Some
sparks
from
the
machine
:
1
,
2
,
3
.
The
terminals
balls
have
7
.
5
cm
of
diameter
.
Mr
.
Wayman
has
built
also
a
similar
,
smaller
,
machine
with
motors
driving
directly
the
disks
.
A
motorized
2
disks
Toepler
machine
,
built
by
Roger
Magnuson
in
1999
.
The
disks
have
20
cm
of
diameter
.
Another
view
.
Note
the
small
Leyden
jars
built
in
the
terminal
supports
.
A
classic
Wimshurst
machine
,
built
by
Ronald
Coleman
in
1999
.
Detail
of
the
crank
,
and
of
the
charge
collectors
.
The
machine
is
prepared
for
an
upgrade
with
larger
disks
.
A
Wommelsdorf
condenser
machine
with
double
rotation
,
built
by
Bert
Pool
,
following
plans
in
a
thesis
written
by
Wommelsdorf
in
1904
.
Another
view
.
This
machine
is
a
compressed
version
of
a
multiple
Wimshurst
machine
,
with
sectors
mounted
between
pairs
of
insulating
rings
,
interconnected
through
the
external
or
internal
edges
of
the
rings
.
One
set
of
rings
/
sectors
is
held
by
the
inner
side
and
the
other
by
the
outer
side
,
and
both
turn
in
opposite
directions
.
A
well
built
small
Wimshurst
machine
,
made
by
Harry
Boneham
,
from
Canada
.
The
support
structure
was
machined
from
aluminum
,
with
the
disks
having
18
.
5
cm
of
diameter
.
Another
view
.
A
Wimshurst
machine
,
built
by
Terry
Baines
,
from
England
,
in
1999
.
With
30
cm
disks
,
it
produces
sparks
with
3
cm
.
A
Wimshurst
machine
,
built
by
Alex
Rice
,
from
England
,
in
1999
.
The
machine
has
32
cm
disks
,
and
produces
sparks
with
10
-
11
cm
of
length
.
The
spark
is
a
double
exposure
.
A
spark
from
the
machine
.
In
2000
,
he
built
an
improved
machine
.
A
Wimshurst
machine
,
with
18
"
acrylic
disks
,
built
by
John
Clark
,
from
England
,
in
2000
.
It
produces
3
"
sparks
.
Dan
Bowlds
,
from
Kentucky
,
USA
,
designed
this
original
machine
.
A
bare
disk
rotates
behind
an
insulating
plate
,
that
holds
four
wood
blocks
painted
with
conductive
ink
.
The
lateral
blocks
are
connected
to
blades
collecting
charges
from
the
back
surface
of
the
rotating
disk
,
and
to
Leyden
jars
made
in
the
supports
.
The
upper
and
lower
blocks
are
inductors
,
and
are
charged
from
the
terminal
blocks
through
single
corona
points
,
also
made
of
wood
.
Opposite
to
the
inductor
blocks
there
are
interconnected
neutralizer
blades
.
The
terminals
are
directly
connected
to
the
Leyden
jars
in
the
supports
.
An
elegant
structure
for
a
small
motorized
machine
(
the
disk
has
6
"
of
diameter
)
that
works
essentially
as
the
Voss
machine
.
The
machine
requires
an
initial
charge
to
start
,
and
produces
sparks
with
1
"
of
length
.
Back
view
,
Lateral
view
.
A
Wimshurst
machine
with
acrylic
structure
made
by
Scott
Nagel
in
2000
.
With
disks
with
14
.
5
"
of
diameter
,
it
produces
sparks
with
up
to
6
"
.
Another
spark
.
Note
the
separated
small
balls
in
the
positive
terminal
,
and
the
good
dimensions
for
the
sectors
in
the
disks
.
The
charge
collectors
,
with
some
sharp
corners
,
were
later
modified
.
What
is
probably
the
largest
working
Wimshurst
machine
was
built
by
Paul
Hendriksen
in
2000
,
for
a
technical
show
by
ROVC
,
in
the
Netherlands
.
The
machine
uses
two
glass
disks
with
2
.
15
meters
of
diameter
(
2
cm
more
than
the
large
machine
built
by
Wimshurst
in
1884
)
,
12
mm
thick
.
The
output
voltage
reaches
1
MV
,
producing
sparks
of
up
to
1
meter
.
It
turns
at
up
to
100
rpm
,
producing
10
uA
of
current
.
The
output
voltage
is
too
high
for
Leyden
jars
,
and
so
two
copper
globes
are
used
as
distributed
capacitors
.
Details
of
the
driving
pulleys
and
a
curious
discharging
mechanism
.
A
long
spark
,
another
,
and
more
sparks
.
A
big
Wommelsdorf
condenser
machine
with
10
55
cm
disks
was
built
by
Serge
Klein
,
in
France
,
in
2000
.
It
can
produce
25
cm
sparks
and
up
to
0
.
7
mA
of
current
.
Frontal
views
,
from
the
left
and
right
sides
,
a
view
of
the
motor
that
turns
it
,
detail
of
the
disks
and
inductors
,
and
another
view
.
The
disks
are
composed
of
three
disks
glued
with
epoxy
glue
,
with
the
central
disks
separating
two
sets
of
intercalated
sectors
.
The
inductor
plates
are
also
enclosed
between
plastic
sheets
glued
with
epoxy
glue
.
It
works
better
with
the
neutralizer
brushes
removed
,
with
the
gap
between
the
disks
and
the
neutralizer
bars
making
the
role
of
the
gap
in
the
neutralizer
circuit
of
the
classic
machines
.
The
machine
was
later
upgraded
to
12
disks
,
with
better
brush
supports
,
in
an
attempt
to
increase
the
output
current
.
A
spark
from
the
machine
.
Mr
.
Klein
has
also
built
other
machines
,
as
a
Dirod
,
a
Wimshurst
machine
,
a
big
Bonetti
machine
,
that
produces
30
cm
sparks
,
a
machine
similar
to
a
Felici
machine
with
disks
and
operating
in
open
air
,
and
a
triplex
sectorless
Wimshurst
machine
.
Another
view
.
A
nice
Wimshurst
machine
,
built
by
Julian
Phillips
,
in
New
Zealand
,
in
2000
.
With
30
cm
disks
,
it
can
produce
7
cm
sparks
.
Another
spark
,
and
a
description
of
it
.
A
very
simple
setup
was
developed
by
Michael
Foster
,
in
Los
Angeles
,
USA
,
in
2001
,
to
produce
long
sparks
by
frictional
electricity
.
He
used
nothing
more
than
a
long
PVC
tube
,
a
paper
towel
,
a
very
simple
Leyden
jar
capacitor
,
and
a
special
positive
terminal
to
excite
long
sparks
.
A
description
of
his
procedure
.
a
Wimshurst
machine
,
built
by
Luca
La
Valle
,
in
Rome
,
Italy
.
He
built
also
other
high
-
voltage
devices
,
as
a
Van
de
Graaff
generator
and
a
Tesla
coil
.
A
curious
small
Wimshurst
machine
,
designed
by
Fausto
Gazzi
,
in
Bologna
,
Italy
.
Mr
.
Gazzi
deals
with
ancient
instruments
,
and
frequently
makes
restorations
,
as
of
this
4
disks
Wimshurst
machine
.
A
nice
Wimshurst
machine
,
built
by
Chris
Kitching
,
from
England
,
in
2001
.
Top
view
,
detail
from
the
charge
collectors
,
and
a
spark
with
14
.
5
cm
produced
by
it
.
The
acrylic
disks
have
36
cm
of
diameter
and
4
mm
of
thickness
,
and
are
mounted
on
nylon
bosses
.
The
balls
at
the
spark
gaps
and
joints
are
softened
steel
balls
.
This
and
this
Bonetti
machines
I
found
at
eBay
.
They
are
similar
to
the
machine
described
by
R
.
A
.
Ford
[
8
]
.
Builders
unknown
.
Tony
J
.
Meijers
,
in
the
Netherlands
,
built
this
nice
Wimshurst
machine
.
With
37
cm
disks
,
it
produces
14
cm
sparks
.
Note
the
driving
system
,
without
crossed
cords
.
Front
view
.
Back
view
.
He
built
also
this
Triplex
Wimshurst
machine
,
in
2000
,
that
with
41
cm
disks
produces
24
cm
sparks
.
It
also
has
a
curious
implementation
of
the
driving
system
,
with
the
driving
axle
making
an
angle
of
10
degrees
with
the
upper
axle
,
so
the
crossed
cord
that
drives
the
central
disks
don
'
t
touch
itself
at
the
crossing
.
Front
view
.
Back
view
.
Side
view
.
Other
view
.
Assembly
of
the
disks
.
A
thick
24
cm
disk
at
the
center
and
disks
at
the
outer
sides
impede
sparking
to
the
center
of
the
machine
.
The
Leyden
jars
also
have
increased
insulation
.
Georges
Hublart
,
from
France
,
built
this
Wimshurst
machine
,
motorized
and
with
a
curious
construction
.
Side
view
.
With
33
cm
disks
,
it
produces
16
cm
sparks
.
Note
the
chains
driving
the
disks
.
He
has
also
other
high
-
voltage
devices
,
as
a
Van
de
Graaff
machine
.
A
Wimshurst
machine
,
with
conductors
insulated
within
PVC
tubes
and
LP
record
disks
covered
by
adhesive
plastic
foil
,
built
by
Ben
Noviello
,
USA
,
in
2002
.
It
produces
10
cm
sparks
.
A
Wimshurst
machine
,
built
by
Rod
Heidel
,
from
the
USA
,
in
2002
.
With
20
cm
disks
,
it
produces
5
cm
sparks
.
The
frontal
structure
is
a
capacitor
.
A
beautiful
Wimshurst
machine
,
built
in
cherry
wood
and
brass
by
Gerald
J
.
Schaefer
,
from
the
USA
,
in
2002
.
The
disks
have
18
"
of
diameter
.
Side
view
,
Frontal
view
,
With
two
demonstration
devices
.
An
intense
spark
from
it
.
A
symmetrical
Toepler
machine
,
built
by
J
.
Keverline
,
from
the
USA
,
in
2002
.
With
30
.
5
cm
disks
,
it
produces
sparks
with
up
to
16
cm
.
The
disks
have
increased
insulation
with
a
material
used
to
insulate
tool
handles
.
This
resulted
in
voltage
high
enough
to
pierce
the
spark
shields
,
that
had
to
have
their
thickness
increased
to
4
mm
.
A
Wimshurst
machine
that
was
once
used
for
demonstrations
at
the
Science
Museum
,
in
London
,
England
,
restored
in
2002
by
Rob
Skitmore
.
A
large
Bonetti
machine
,
built
by
Karl
Kehrle
,
in
Germany
,
in
2003
.
With
80
cm
polystyrene
disks
,
it
produces
63
cm
sparks
,
between
a
pair
of
aluminim
balls
(
8
,
12
cm
)
at
the
positive
terminal
and
a
30
cm
styrofoam
ball
covered
with
aluminum
foil
at
the
negative
terminal
.
The
glass
Leyden
jars
have
720
pF
each
.
Mr
.
Kehrle
wrote
a
book
[
49
]
showing
experiments
with
a
similar
sectored
machine
,
that
with
90
cm
disks
produces
47
cm
sparks
.
A
Toepler
machine
with
48
cm
disks
,
built
by
Alain
Tramasaygues
,
from
France
,
in
2003
.
This
improved
version
,
with
the
inductor
plates
mounted
inside
a
box
,
worked
better
.
This
is
a
curious
Van
de
Graaff
generator
also
built
by
him
,
that
can
produce
30
cm
sparks
.
This
is
his
Van
de
Graaff
with
external
belt
.
He
also
built
a
Dirod
machine
.
Another
view
.
A
sectorless
Wimshurst
machine
,
with
60
cm
disks
,
built
by
Grant
Vincent
Wells
,
in
New
Zealand
.
It
can
be
operated
by
hand
or
by
a
motor
,
has
an
electronic
startup
system
,
and
produces
sparks
with
up
to
24
cm
.
These
two
machines
were
built
by
Alan
Kerley
.
The
larger
machine
is
a
Voss
machine
with
a
21
"
and
17
.
5
"
disks
,
and
the
other
is
a
small
Wimshurst
machine
made
from
CD
disks
.
This
is
a
Wimshurst
machine
made
by
Keith
Stuart
,
by
2000
,
in
New
Zealand
.
It
produces
10
cm
sparks
.
He
also
restored
an
old
machine
(
probably
German
,
from
around
1900
)
for
the
Auckland
Museum
of
Transport
and
Technology
.
Front
view
,
back
view
.
By
the
end
of
2003
,
he
made
a
curious
combination
between
a
symmetrical
Toepler
machine
and
a
Dirod
.
Side
view
,
other
side
,
top
view
,
end
view
.
With
12
cm
disks
,
it
produces
4
cm
sparks
.
A
motorized
Wimshurst
machine
,
made
by
Thomas
Rapp
,
in
Munich
,
Germany
,
in
2004
.
Another
view
.
The
disks
have
30
cm
of
diameter
.
More
informations
and
other
projects
can
be
found
at
the
author
'
s
site
.
A
Van
de
Graaff
generator
,
made
by
Richard
Linder
,
in
Burlington
,
USA
.
The
terminal
is
a
stainless
steel
sphere
with
45
cm
of
diameter
.
The
bottom
roller
is
made
of
Nylon
,
and
the
top
roller
of
Teflon
.
The
belt
is
made
of
0
.
4
mm
Mylar
foil
.
Mr
.
Linder
makes
demonstrations
using
it
at
the
Burlington
Science
Center
.
For
the
2004
-
2005
school
season
,
he
built
a
larger
machine
,
with
a
36
"
terminal
.
The
6
"
belt
is
made
of
vinyl
impregnated
nylon
.
It
produces
arcs
with
18
"
to
24
"
to
a
1
.
5
"
grounded
sphere
.
A
Wimshurst
machine
,
built
by
Ricardo
Triches
,
in
Brazil
,
in
2004
.
Another
view
.
A
big
Van
de
Graaff
machine
,
built
by
Harold
Pollner
,
in
California
,
USA
,
in
2004
.
The
terminal
has
30
"
of
diameter
,
the
comumn
is
9
"
PVC
,
the
belt
is
made
with
4
"
Neoprene
,
and
the
machine
is
powered
by
a
1
/
4
hp
1725
rpm
ac
motor
.
Excitation
is
by
rolling
friction
between
the
belt
and
the
lower
roller
,
that
is
a
4
"
PVC
coupling
mounted
over
a
wooden
core
.
It
produces
22
"
to
27
"
sparks
,
but
from
the
rim
of
the
sphere
opening
to
a
grounded
target
electrode
positioned
below
the
sphere
,
(
as
in
the
picture
)
.
Sparks
from
other
points
of
the
sphere
reach
only
6
"
to
7
"
.
A
small
Wimshurst
machine
,
with
20
cm
disks
,
built
by
Hannu
Eloranta
,
from
Espoo
,
Finland
,
in
2005
.
A
nice
Wimshurst
machine
,
belonging
to
Dr
.
Alistair
Miller
,
England
.
The
machine
has
19
"
disks
and
produces
6
.
5
"
sparks
.
It
was
built
by
Anthony
Swift
,
that
runs
a
museum
dedicated
to
Victorian
science
in
North
Yorkshire
,
England
.
A
motorized
Wimshurst
machine
,
built
by
Peter
Bradley
,
in
England
.
Spark
picture
.
Another
spark
.
A
curious
friction
machine
built
as
a
Gramophone
,
by
Kaj
V
.
M
.
Heiden
,
in
the
Netherlands
.
A
spark
.
Several
Wimshurst
and
Bonetti
machines
built
by
Jarrod
Kinsey
.
Another
view
.
A
Wimshurst
machine
,
built
by
Christophe
Branger
,
in
France
,
in
2006
.
Another
view
,
and
another
.
Spark
,
another
spark
.
A
Wimshurst
machine
,
built
by
Emiliano
Salinas
Covarrubias
,
from
the
Universidad
de
Sonora
,
Mexico
.
The
acrylic
disks
have
40
cm
of
diameter
,
and
the
structure
is
made
of
polystyrene
.
It
procuces
6
cm
sparks
.
A
big
Bonetti
machine
,
made
by
Hal
Pollner
,
in
the
USA
,
in
2006
.
With
25
"
disks
,
it
produces
11
"
sparks
.
A
Van
de
Graaff
generator
is
used
to
excite
the
machine
.
Another
view
.
Friction
machines
The
first
electrostatic
machine
[
15
]
,
was
built
by
Otto
von
Guericke
[
16
]
by
1663
,
using
a
sulphur
globe
frictioned
by
hand
.
The
globe
could
be
removed
and
used
as
source
for
experiments
with
electricity
.
A
picture
of
a
working
replica
of
the
machine
,
from
the
University
of
Oldenburg
.
Another
important
early
researcher
was
Francis
Hauksbee
,
that
built
several
machines
using
glass
globes
[
50
]
[
53
]
and
cylinders
by
1705
.
The
friction
machines
were
gradually
improved
through
the
works
of
many
researchers
.
This
is
the
machine
with
a
glass
globe
of
the
abbot
Nollet
(
~
1740
)
[
7
]
.
Eventually
,
the
machines
took
a
stable
form
,
with
leather
friction
pads
(
Winkler
,
1744
)
,
glass
globes
(
Bose
,
1751
)
,
and
insulated
charge
collectors
.
Demonstrations
with
these
machines
were
common
.
Watson
'
s
machine
[
51
]
[
52
]
(
1746
)
had
a
large
wheel
turning
several
glass
globes
.
The
prime
conductors
were
a
sword
and
a
gun
barrel
suspended
from
silk
cords
.
A
Ramsden
electrostatic
friction
machine
[
2
]
.
Another
picture
[
7
]
,
another
[
12
]
,
a
good
drawing
[
17
]
,
and
a
picture
of
a
large
machine
[
14
]
.
The
first
popular
machine
using
a
disk
(
1766
)
.
Designed
by
J
.
Ramsden
,
an
instrumentist
that
also
designed
many
other
good
instruments
in
the
1700
'
s
.
A
beautiful
restored
Ramsden
machine
,
found
at
eBay
in
1999
.
Photos
by
Fausto
Gazzi
.
This
large
machine
I
found
in
a
museum
in
Geneva
,
Switzerland
.
A
simpler
machine
built
by
myself
is
in
a
photo
above
.
The
machine
of
Le
Roy
(
1772
)
[
50
]
[
p26
]
was
suitable
for
the
production
of
long
sparks
,
due
to
the
high
insulation
between
the
friction
pads
and
the
charge
collectors
(
see
a
more
modern
version
as
the
Winter
machine
,
below
)
.
This
large
disk
machine
(
1785
)
with
1
.
6
m
disks
can
be
seen
at
the
Musée
du
Conservatoire
Nacional
des
Arts
et
Metiers
,
In
Paris
,
France
.
On
its
base
is
written
the
motto
at
the
top
of
this
page
.
There
is
a
picture
of
it
in
[
21
]
.
A
brass
model
of
a
Ramsden
machine
.
A
curious
decorative
object
,
possibly
from
the
1930
'
s
or
before
.
The
disk
has
3
.
5
"
of
diameter
.
Photos
sent
by
Blake
Awbrey
.
A
Nairne
electrostatic
friction
machine
[
7
]
,
built
in
1770
,
consists
in
a
glass
cylinder
,
a
friction
pad
in
one
side
,
and
a
charge
collector
in
the
other
,
both
connected
to
insulated
conductors
.
Another
one
.
The
van
Marum
electrostatic
friction
machine
(
1784
)
[
9
]
.
By
moving
the
two
curved
bars
with
charge
collectors
,
it
was
possible
to
collect
charge
from
the
disk
(
bars
as
shown
)
,
or
from
the
friction
pads
(
bars
turned
90
degrees
)
,
producing
voltage
with
any
polarity
,
as
shown
here
.
Van
Marum
is
also
known
for
the
big
machine
[
16
]
[
21
]
that
he
had
made
in
1784
,
that
is
now
in
the
Teylers
museum
.
A
similar
machine
,
now
in
the
Deutches
Museum
,
Munich
,
Germany
,
belonged
to
Georg
Ohm
(
1830
?
)
[
21
]
.
Another
view
.
Photos
sent
by
Hans
Bussmann
.
A
belt
machine
[
50
]
built
by
N
.
Rouland
by
1785
,
had
a
charge
collector
with
blades
that
collect
charges
from
a
silk
belt
rubbed
by
two
grounded
tubes
covered
with
hare
fur
[
21
]
.
An
old
friction
machine
using
a
glass
disk
.
Another
picture
of
the
same
machine
.
Photos
sent
by
Don
Day
.
A
Winter
electrostatic
friction
machine
.
One
of
the
most
efficient
friction
machines
.
A
picture
from
an
old
book
[
3
]
,
and
another
,
from
H
.
Pellat
[
7
]
.
This
was
the
last
popular
structure
for
friction
machines
,
as
shown
in
these
catalog
pictures
from
the
1920
'
s
:
this
and
this
are
from
[
17
]
,
and
this
is
from
[
22
]
.
The
characteristics
of
the
machine
are
the
disk
frictioned
at
one
side
,
at
both
faces
,
with
a
pair
of
charge
collectors
at
the
other
side
,
shaped
as
rings
with
points
turned
to
the
disks
.
Sometimes
a
large
wood
ring
(
Winter
'
s
ring
)
with
a
metallic
core
was
attached
to
the
terminal
,
increasing
it
'
s
capacitance
.
A
double
version
can
be
seen
on
the
first
picture
.
The
Woodward
machine
(
1840
)
[
43
]
[
21
]
was
a
modified
Ramsden
machine
,
with
the
prime
conductor
located
above
the
disk
,
or
disks
,
saving
some
space
.
It
could
also
generate
negative
voltage
,
by
mounting
the
upper
friction
pad
in
place
of
one
of
the
charge
collectors
.
This
double
machine
is
in
the
University
of
Porto
,
Portugal
.
Partially
disassembled
.
Pictures
by
Marisa
Monteiro
.
The
Armstrong
hydroelectric
machine
[
2
]
,
a
friction
machine
using
steam
as
charge
carrier
(
1840
)
.
It
is
just
an
insulated
boiler
producing
a
steam
jet
mixed
with
water
droplets
.
A
better
picture
is
here
[
9
]
.
The
Lorente
generator
.
A
triboelectric
machine
composed
of
four
cylinders
that
roll
together
without
friction
,
under
a
slight
pressure
.
The
two
outermost
cylinders
are
metallic
,
and
the
two
central
cylinders
are
of
distinct
insulating
materials
(
nylon
and
teflon
)
.
Opposite
charges
are
collected
in
the
metallic
cylinders
.
The
basic
machine
produces
voltages
of
some
tens
of
kV
,
but
several
modules
can
be
stacked
for
more
voltage
.
A
coaxial
version
is
also
possible
.
Pictures
from
actual
models
are
here
and
here
.
This
device
was
invented
and
patented
by
G
.
Lorente
,
who
sent
the
pictures
.
Influence
machines
The
first
rotating
influence
machines
were
the
"
doublers
"
.
The
first
was
Nicholson
'
s
doubler
[
p14
]
(
1788
)
.
It
was
a
rotating
implementation
of
Bennet
'
s
doubler
(
1787
)
,
a
device
based
on
Volta
'
s
"
electrophorus
"
(
see
also
here
)
(
1776
)
,
that
allowed
great
multiplication
of
a
small
initial
charge
by
a
series
of
repeated
operations
with
three
insulated
plates
.
The
original
machine
proposed
by
Nicholson
didn
'
t
require
a
connection
to
ground
,
but
versions
with
explicit
ground
connections
are
also
possible
,
as
this
[
28
]
,
and
this
(
built
by
Wimshurst
)
[
p14
]
.
An
actual
machine
exists
the
Musee
d
'
histoire
des
sciences
,
in
Geneva
(
the
site
has
a
movie
of
the
doubler
in
operation
)
,
that
looks
as
this
machine
(
John
Read
'
s
doubler
)
[
p106
]
.
See
my
Nicholson
'
s
doubler
.
A
similar
implementation
,
where
the
two
plates
that
are
fixed
in
Nicholson
'
s
device
rotate
,
is
Bohnenberger
'
s
machine
(
1798
)
[
4
]
.
Bohnenberger
designed
several
other
doublers
,
as
this
automated
version
of
Bennet
'
s
doubler
and
this
variation
of
Nicholson
'
s
doubler
(
1801
)
[
p107
]
,
both
operating
with
back
and
forth
movements
.
See
my
Bohnenberger
'
s
machine
.
Multipliers
based
on
a
different
system
are
also
possible
,
as
Péclet
'
s
condenser
(
1841
)
that
increases
the
charges
linearly
with
the
number
of
operations
[
p87
]
and
a
multiplier
with
4
plates
invented
by
Pfaff
and
Svanberg
that
combines
addition
and
multiplication
[
54
]
.
A
similar
adding
device
was
Cavallo
'
s
multiplier
(
1795
)
,
where
a
movable
insulated
plate
was
moved
back
and
forth
,
alternatively
being
grounded
under
the
influence
of
a
second
previously
charged
plate
,
and
touching
a
third
insulated
plate
close
to
a
grounded
fourth
plate
.
After
some
cycles
,
the
grounded
plate
would
be
removed
,
causing
the
accumulated
charge
at
the
third
plate
to
rise
its
potential
to
about
the
potential
of
the
second
plate
times
the
number
of
cycles
[
4
]
.
The
next
development
was
of
symmetrical
influence
machines
,
using
influence
to
generate
new
charges
and
Faraday
'
s
shielding
effect
to
collect
them
.
The
first
was
Belli
'
s
machine
[
4
]
[
p14
]
(
1831
)
,
the
first
symmetrical
influence
machine
.
A
picture
of
an
elaborated
actual
machine
.
Belli
developed
also
a
different
machine
using
the
same
principle
,
shown
here
.
The
same
basic
structure
appears
in
Lord
Kelvin
'
s
"
replenisher
"
[
2
]
[
p92
]
(
1867
)
,
in
schematic
representation
,
and
as
constructed
[
12
]
.
A
simple
machine
built
with
insulated
curved
metal
plates
,
used
as
part
of
measurement
instruments
.
Here
is
a
ray
-
tracing
picture
similar
to
a
machine
that
I
built
by
1973
.
The
rotation
of
the
central
insulating
bar
with
two
metallic
carriers
,
touching
the
four
contacts
,
causes
accumulation
of
opposite
charges
in
the
outer
plates
.
Another
similar
machine
was
the
Varley
machine
[
26
]
(
1860
)
.
A
curious
machine
[
18
]
that
appears
to
be
similar
,
if
the
lateral
brushes
are
connected
to
the
fixed
plates
.
The
same
machine
appears
illustrating
this
advertisement
(
1962
)
but
with
an
added
set
of
brushes
installed
,
to
separate
the
output
circuit
from
the
inductor
plates
,
as
in
the
Voss
machine
.
The
Piche
machine
,
or
Bertsch
machine
(
1866
)
[
7
]
.
One
of
the
simplest
influence
machines
,
uses
an
insulator
plate
(
I
)
,
that
is
separately
electrized
by
friction
,
and
used
to
generate
charges
in
the
rotating
disk
by
induction
.
See
the
original
letters
about
this
machine
in
the
references
.
A
similar
device
is
the
Dubrowski
machine
[
22
]
.
This
type
of
machine
was
called
"
continuous
electrophorus
"
.
The
Carré
machine
[
6
]
(
1868
)
.
A
friction
machine
below
charges
by
induction
a
fast
rotating
disk
,
that
transfers
charge
to
the
upper
conductor
.
It
is
similar
in
operation
to
the
Bertsch
machine
,
but
regenerates
the
charge
in
the
inductor
.
A
better
picture
[
7
]
.
A
variation
[
14
]
with
slanted
combs
.
A
ray
-
tracing
drawing
.
A
photo
from
an
actual
machine
,
sent
by
John
Newman
.
A
machine
with
a
double
terminal
.
The
Van
de
Graaff
generator
[
p4
]
[
8
]
is
an
evolution
of
this
machine
,
with
a
belt
instead
of
the
disk
,
and
a
more
efficient
charge
collector
at
the
top
.
This
machine
is
in
a
museum
in
Switzerland
.
Another
machine
,
in
a
Museum
in
Spain
.
A
double
Bonetti
machine
from
the
same
museum
,
with
curiously
shaped
neutralizer
combs
(
?
)
.
Another
antecessor
of
the
Van
de
Graaff
generator
is
Righi
'
s
electromer
[
p55
]
(
1872
)
,
that
used
a
rubber
string
with
brass
rings
for
charge
transport
,
and
a
hollow
sphere
as
charge
collector
.
A
picture
of
this
machine
[
41
]
.
Similar
machines
are
also
discussed
in
[
p59
]
(
1875
)
,
as
a
bipolar
machine
,
that
must
have
grounded
pulleys
,
and
another
,
that
adds
a
neutralizer
circuit
and
can
use
insulated
pulleys
.
Righi
studied
also
a
belt
machine
[
p59
]
,
that
antecipates
a
regenerative
charging
system
used
in
some
Van
de
Graaff
machines
,
and
shows
a
curious
polarity
reversal
phenomenon
,
where
for
some
time
the
belt
operates
with
bands
of
both
polarities
.
Righi
designed
this
big
Holtz
machine
[
41
]
(
~
1875
)
,
used
at
the
Regio
Istituto
Tecnico
de
Bologna
for
teaching
and
research
.
A
drawing
of
a
similar
machine
[
42
]
.
A
Lord
Kelvin
'
s
water
machine
(
1867
)
[
1
]
[
p91
]
.
It
is
an
influence
machine
that
uses
water
droplets
instead
of
rotating
carriers
.
It
works
in
the
same
way
of
the
2
disks
Toepler
machine
.
Another
picture
[
6
]
of
a
similar
machine
.
An
improvement
of
this
machine
using
two
additional
units
for
output
,
avoiding
the
discharge
of
the
inductors
,
was
proposed
by
Fuller
in
1888
[
p103
]
[
p62
]
.
A
different
version
was
proposed
by
Sylvanus
Thompson
in
1887
[
p104
]
.
The
Schwedoff
influence
machine
[
9
]
[
13
]
[
29
]
(
1868
)
.
A
very
strange
machine
.
The
lower
plates
form
a
modified
Holtz
machine
,
with
inductor
plates
replaced
by
combs
(
dotted
lines
)
charging
the
lower
surface
of
the
lowest
fixed
disk
with
charge
taken
from
the
charge
collectors
.
This
first
machine
provides
bias
for
the
sectors
in
the
lower
plate
of
the
upper
assembly
(
the
even
-
numbered
ones
with
one
polarity
,
the
others
with
another
)
,
that
form
a
current
multiplier
.
The
output
is
taken
between
the
two
insulated
sets
of
combs
over
the
upper
,
rotating
disk
.
This
picture
from
the
original
paper
[
p46
]
shows
more
clearly
the
connections
.
This
is
the
charge
collector
[
p46
]
that
completes
the
machine
.
A
Toepler
-
Holtz
machine
,
or
Voss
machine
with
classical
design
.
From
a
catalog
from
the
1920
'
s
.
Two
more
pictures
here
and
here
.
Pictures
found
in
the
Gemmary
'
s
forum
.
Several
Toepler
-
Holtz
,
or
Voss
,
machines
from
[
17
]
:
A
simple
machine
,
another
,
a
double
machine
,
a
quadruple
machine
(
see
one
here
)
,
and
a
multiple
machine
.
Two
more
simple
machines
from
[
18
]
:
this
and
this
.
And
another
one
,
from
[
22
]
.
A
magnific
quadruple
Voss
machine
,
at
the
museum
of
the
University
of
Pavia
,
Italy
.
A
Holtz
-
Wimshurst
machine
[
4
]
[
23
]
,
simple
and
with
a
frictional
starter
[
4
]
[
23
]
.
These
were
Holtz
-
type
machines
with
several
disks
and
improved
construction
,
as
the
inductors
fixed
in
separate
square
glass
plates
,
developed
by
Wimshurst
by
1878
.
The
Kundt
machine
[
4
]
(
1868
)
was
a
mixed
friction
-
influence
machine
,
similar
to
a
Bertsch
machine
with
the
back
side
of
the
disk
frictioned
by
a
friction
pad
with
a
silk
flap
attached
,
as
in
a
friction
machine
.
At
the
front
side
are
positioned
two
charge
collectors
,
as
in
the
Bertsch
machine
.
A
similar
machine
was
the
Cantoni
machine
(
1869
)
,
that
added
a
third
charge
collector
at
the
back
side
of
the
disk
,
so
the
machine
can
also
be
used
as
a
friction
machine
.
A
good
picture
of
a
classic
Wimshurst
machine
(
1883
)
[
1
]
.
A
Line
drawing
of
the
same
picture
[
2
]
.
A
Wimshurst
machine
[
6
]
,
similar
to
one
that
exists
in
the
Museum
of
the
UFRJ
Engineering
School
,
and
that
I
restored
.
Another
[
14
]
similar
machine
.
That
machine
was
built
by
F
.
Ducretet
and
E
.
Roger
,
Paris
,
and
originally
should
look
as
in
this
(
front
)
and
this
(
back
)
ray
-
tracing
drawings
.
Here
are
comments
about
the
restoration
and
more
pictures
.
This
is
how
it
is
now
,
compared
with
my
1974
Wimshurst
.
A
large
spark
produced
by
the
machine
in
a
demonstration
.
Another
picture
,
showing
two
of
these
machines
connected
as
a
generator
and
motor
pair
[
24
]
.
These
pictures
[
23
]
show
discharge
images
on
photographic
plates
obtained
with
one
of
these
machines
.
A
positive
discharge
,
and
a
negative
discharge
.
A
multiple
machine
from
the
same
instrument
builder
,
at
the
University
of
Porto
,
Portugal
.
Here
is
another
Wimshurst
machine
from
the
same
museum
that
I
restored
(
ray
-
tracing
)
,
a
picture
of
it
,
and
some
comments
about
the
restoration
.
The
largest
Wimshurst
machine
ever
built
is
presently
at
the
Science
and
Industry
Museum
in
Chicago
,
USA
.
It
was
built
in
England
in
1885
,
with
7
foot
glass
disks
3
/
8
inch
thick
,
and
produced
sparks
with
22
inches
.
This
picture
is
from
Engineering
,
Vol
.
39
,
1885
,
scanned
from
[
23
]
(
also
appears
in
[
4
]
[
5
]
[
8
]
[
26
]
)
.
More
informations
and
pictures
about
this
machine
.
More
Wimshurst
machines
,
from
[
14
]
:
A
large
simple
machine
,
a
double
machine
,
a
quadruple
machine
,
and
an
octuple
machine
.
And
also
two
machines
from
[
15
]
,
with
ebonite
disks
and
Leyden
jars
with
two
sections
,
and
with
glass
disks
.
Two
more
large
machines
from
[
22
]
:
A
simple
machine
and
a
quadruple
machine
.
Wimshurst
machines
,
from
the
collection
belonging
to
Louie
Scribner
:
A
French
machine
(
Bonetti
)
,
and
a
German
machine
(
Leybold
,
1901
)
.
Wimshurst
machines
that
have
full
construction
details
in
[
4
]
[
23
]
:
A
laboratory
machine
,
a
long
spark
machine
,
and
a
twelve
plates
machine
.
Designs
by
J
.
Wimshurst
.
A
"
Voltana
"
Wimshurst
machine
[
34
]
(
1921
)
,
used
to
run
an
electrostatic
motor
,
and
a
bank
of
Geissler
tubes
.
A
larger
machine
,
a
smaller
machine
,
another
machine
,
more
Geissler
tubes
being
lighted
,
lighting
a
spinning
Geissler
tube
,
charging
a
Leyden
jar
,
and
charging
a
spring
,
that
expands
when
charged
[
35
]
.
Several
machines
,
from
[
38
]
,
that
illustrate
the
state
of
the
art
by
1900
:
A
classic
Wimshurst
m